Petr Vavruch: The correct lubricant
Textbook and ready reference book
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To say lubrication is important is an understatement. The role of lubrication in reducing friction, cooling, minimising wear, improving efficiency and avoiding unplanned downtime is as critical as the design or componentry of any machinery.
Aaron Stone
***
Petr Vavruch also presents a two-day workshop anywhere in the world for US$1000 plus the necessary moderate expenses
See comments by the participants of the workshops
***
This web page provides additional information and illustrations (Petr Vavruch does not always agree with all the views expressed in these web sites)
Please click here to report any addresses that no longer work or to suggest additional web sites
NEWS
Dr Neil Canter - Carbon dioxide removal using an electrochemical cell (June 2022)
New Infineum additive package receives NOL for MAN Cat II (2 June 2022)
Infineum launches single oil solution for MAN B&W two-stroke engines (19 May 2022)
Lubrizol - ACEA 2022 European Oil Sequences for Heavy-Duty Engines (video, 2 May 2022)
ACEA publishes new edition of Oil Sequences for Heavy-Duty Engines (5 May 2022)
IFC’s new global engine oil specifications under final review (2 May 2022)
Tim Sullivan - Latest Dexos generation gains steam (20 April 2022)
Chevron Oronite passes Main No Objection Letter test from MAN (20 April 2022)
Infineum - On the road to PC-12 (March 2022)
Dr Yulia Sosa - Hydrogen-powered vehicles: Is the third time the charm? (April 2022)
The evolution of modern industrial hydraulic and lube oil filtration (webinar, 8 March 2022)
Durban, South Africa: Sapref to pause operations in March (15 February 2022)
Engine oil specifications: What’s next? (9 February 2022)
Chevron Oronite passes Main NOL test from MAN Energy Solutions (16 December 2021)
Mobilgrease XHP 222 receives NLGI HPM Grease certification (16 December 2021)
Dr Boris Zhmud - How AI can improve the predictive power of tribology, the tribological challenges of electrical vehicles and why the energy transition should be an evolution (audio, 8 December 2021)
Fleet owners' lubricant priorities (7 December 2021)
Wolf launches new engine oil that meets Ford’s latest spec (23 November 2021)
PC-12 could face backwards compatibility issues (17 November 2021)
Exol Lubricants is approved for Scania’s new gearbox oil spec (17 November 2021)
Infineum launches broad portfolio of additives for EV fluids (27 September 2021)
Cummins begins tests of hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine (13 August 2021)
IFC to launch new engine oil standards (3rd Q 2021)
F + L MAGAZINE 3rd Q 2021
David Tsui - The International Fluids Consortium (IFC), a newly formed industry body led by automakers (10 May 2021)
Optimizing the performance of transmission fluids for EVs and HEVs (21 July 2021)
Very low sulphur marine fuels - shelf life (6 July 2021)
Richard van den Bulk - Could this be the last of the ACEA Engine Oil Sequences? (audio, 9 July 2021)
Hydrogen substitution for natural gas in turbines: Opportunities, issues, and challenges (18 June 2021)
GE turbine selected for H2, gas-fired Tallawarra plant in Australia (16 June 2021)
Infineum - Introducing Scania HD to protect heavy-duty engines in very severe operation (25 May 2021)
Afton launches world’s first e-transmission fluid additive (13 May 2021)
World’s most powerful tidal turbine launched (28 April 2021)
Mike Rycroft - Hydrogen as a fuel for gas turbines (page 33, April 2021)
Shell to conduct trial of hydrogen fuel cells for ships (26 April 2021)
George Gill - Conductive deposits pose threats to EVs (21 April 2021)
Mike Kunselman - Does new OEM global fluids consortium spell end of ILSAC? (14 April 2021)
Tim Sullivan - OEMs propose global system for specs (13 April 2021)
Christoph Rofka, Deepak Davendrappa, Jacob Sterlin and Rashpal Bhatti - Marine diesel engines: The beginning of the end? (23 February 2021)
How organizations are reducing losses due to preventable maintenance issues (18 January 2021)
FLUKE - Root causes of lubrication degradation (webinar, 2021)
Petro-Canada's factory fill for Allison’s TES 668TM specification (19 January 2021)
Sediment concerns in marine fuels (7 December 2020)
Dr Raj Shah, Dr Ken Hope, Nathan Aragon - Fuel economy considerations: Effect of lube oils and their volatility (November 2020)
Proposed ASTM standard aims to provide accurate information on hydrocarbons (2 November 2020)
Leandro Benvenutti, Infineum - New transmission fluid challenges (27 October 2020)
Ryan Martin and Dominique Bonte - Digital transformation what is new, what is next and what it all means (October 2020)
Wolf Oil launches engine oils that meet Renault’s RN17 lube specs (18 June 2020)
Red Line Synthetic Oil launches new chain lube (1 October 2020)
Castrol launches new pre-oil change treatment product (1 October 2020)
Breakthrough diesel exhaust fluid (1 October 2020)
Allison announces new ATF spec for on-highway equipment, TES 668 (29 September 2020)
Dr Raj Shah, Dr Hind Abi-Akar, Stanley Zhang - Modern global engine oil standards (September 2020)
Chevron Marine Lubricants' white paper with findings how ship operators manage the transition from high-sulphur fuel oil (HSFO) to very low-sulphur fuel oil (VLSFO) (28 August 2020)
Managing waxy marine fuels (August 2020)
Mary Beckman - The business of truck lubrication (February 2020)
STLE presentations by Afton, Croda, Evonik, ExxonMobil, King Industries, LANXESS (prev, Ciba), Münzing, Lubrizol (2019)
Lubrizol white paper identifies VLSFO engine condition challenges (11 January 2020)
Tim Sullivan - Balancing viscosity, wear in HDEOs (8 January 2020)
ENGIE and Anglo American to develop first hydrogen-powered mining haul truck (November 2019)
Mary Beckman - Today’s automatic transmission fluids (October 2019)
Infineum - Are all lubricity products equal? (25 September 2019)
Pei Yi Lim, Infineum - Emissions regulations impact motorcycles (24 September 2019)
Astron Energy is a leading supplier of petroleum products in South Africa
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has approved and adopted a comprehensive set of guidance and guidelines to support the consistent implementation of the lower 0.50% limit on sulphur in ships' fuel oil (19 July 2019)
Marine lubricants will need formulations for multiple types of fuel when ship owners comply with IMO 2020 regulations (19 July 2019)
JASO is preparing a new PCMO specification for ultra-low-viscosities 0W-12 and 0W-8 (19 July 2019)
Japan’s ultra-low viscosity passenger car motor oil specification GLV-1 will impacts base oil quality demands (12 July 2019)
IMO 2020 Sulphur Cap Regulations and marine lubricants (TLT Sounding Board, July 2019)
World’s first CTL base oil plant starts production in Shanxi Province, China (24 May 2019)
George Gill - Low viscosity oils called challenge to industry (26 March 2019)
BMW and Daimler create a global player to provide sustainable urban mobility (28 February 2019)
GE exits locomotive business, sells division to Wabtec (28 May 2018)
Mazda Motor to launch world’s first commercial gasoline engine to use compression ignition (9 August 2017)
SUBJECT LINKS FOLLOWING THE SECTIONS OF THE BOOK
Lubrication - general
1. Three basic aspects of lubricating oils
1.1 Viscosity, kinematic, dynamic, ISO VG
1.2 and 1.3 Viscosity of engine oils and automotive gear oils, SAE, multi-grade
1.4 Viscosity index, viscosity modifiers, viscosity-temperature chart, calculators
1.5 Pour point, pour point depressant
1.6 Flash point and Noack volatility
1.7 Charts, blending
Answers to 1.7 (link)
1.8 Foam, entrained air and air release, defoamant, cavitation
1.9 Base stocks, saturates, aromatic hydrocarbons, API groups
Lube oil reclamation and re-refining
1.9.1 What does 'synthetic' mean?
Synthetics - usage
1.9.2 Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
Food-grade lubricants
1.9.3 Other synthetic hydrocarbons
1.9.5 Polyalkylene glycols (PAG) (polar compounds)
1.9.6 Esters, amides, environmentally friendly lubes
Vegetable oils and biodegradable lubricants
1.9.7 Naphthenics
1.10 Oil performance, performance additives
1.11 Water separability (demulsibility)
1.12 Supplemental ('proprietary') additives
2. Answers to REVISION 1 (link)
3.1 Engine oils, detergents, dispersants, ZDDP, fuel economy
Friction and wear
Sludge, drain intervals, maintenance
3.2 Engine oil specifications, API service categories
3.3 and 3.4 Sulphated ash, TBN
3.5 ILSAC (International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee)
3.6 ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) and Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)
General Motors dexos
3.9 Two-stroke petrol engines
3.10 Outboard motor oils
3.11 Motorcycle oils
Electric vehicles, hydrogen combustion
3.12 Gas engines
3.13 Marine engines and emergency power generation, marine lubes and fuels
3.15 Jet engines and gas turbines
3.16 Automotive gear oils for manual gearboxes
3.17 Limited slip differentials
3.18 and 3.19 Eaton (form. Fuller) and ZF-FreedomLine, Caterpillar
3.20 Allison
3.21 Total Acid Number (TAN)
3.22 Automatic transmission fluids (ATF)
3.23 Farm equipment oils, UTTO, STOU
3.24 Brake fluids and coolants
4. Answers to REVISION 2 (link)
5. Lubrication conditions, EHL, anti-wear, EP
Graphene, nanomaterials, 2D solid lubricants
6. Industrial gear oils
Micro-pitting, wind turbines and using synthetics in gears
6.1 Worm gears (PAG)
6.3 Open gears
Gear failures
Chain and wire rope lubrication
7. Greases (also 7.3, 7.5 and 7.7)
Grease guns and systems
7.1 and 7.2 Grease thickeners, polymers and compatibility
7.4 Grease lubricated rolling element bearings
7.6 Grease-filled gearboxes
7.8 Grease or oil?
8. Bearings (also 8.2)
Paper machines, spindle oils, sugar mills, Morgan and Danieli
8.1 Rolling element bearings
Rolling element bearing failures
8.4 Steam turbines, varnish
9.1 Air compressors, coalescer filters
9.2 Vacuum pumps
9.3 Compressors for other gases
9.4 Refrigeration compressors
10. Hydraulic fluids
10.1 Fire-resistant fluids
10.2 Oil cleanliness
Particle counting, cleaning oil, filtration
Oil filters
Flushing
11. and 13. Lubricant storage and storage life (shelf life)
12. Transformer oils
14. Machine tools
15. Cutting fluids, metal cutting, grinding
16. Rust preventives, stored machines
17. Answers to REVISION 3 (link)
Hint No. 2 for CHALLENGE (link)
Hint No. 3 for CHALLENGE (link)
18. CHALLENGE solution (pdf)
Answers to questions (link)
Oil suppliers' information, approved and recommended lubricants (for information only)
Maintenance, lubricant monitoring, sampling and analysis (in the following sections)
Monitoring equipment without special instruments and without laboratory samples
Designing oil analysis programme, standard test methods
Condition monitoring
Oil and grease sampling
Sampling frequencies
Advanced test methods
Root causes of failures, analysis interpretation
Grease analysis
Oil cleanliness
Particle counting, cleaning oil, filtration
Oil filters
Flushing
Water contamination
Fuels
Maintenance strategies - reactive, preventive, predictive, proactive and prescriptive
Management, maintenance management, Total Productive Maintenance, autonomous maintenance
Reliability, RCM
Maintenance/Industry 4.0, Internet of things (IoT), AI, CMMS
Lubrication practices, lubrication excellence
Training, education, skills
Light reading
In machinery condition monitoring, a decision on the condition of a machine is dependent on the nature of its signals. For example, if the machine produces excessive noise and vibration, one gets a clue that something is not normal with the machine. These signals are usually time varying and need to be understood because they carry the information from the machine to the decision system, which can be a developed software or a person.
Machinery Condition Monitoring: Principles and Practices
Lubrication - general
Test your knowledge: 3 questions
The lessons we learn through struggles, mistakes and failures (2022)
Jeremie Edwards, Noria - 3 quick lubrication wins (22' webinar, 2022)
Top 10 things you (maybe) didn’t know about lubrication (20´ video, 2015)
Lubricants, Tribology
tribonet - Introduction to Tribology (video 4:26, 2021)
Riya Veluri, tribonet - Oil lubrication (2022)
Dr Gamini Amarasekera - Overview of lubricant technology (2010)
Lubrication basics
Afton - Basics of lubrication (video 10:47)
Principles of lubrication (sample video)
Lubrication and beyond (brief)
TESTOIL - Lubricant fundamentals
Don't use the terrible, ignorant slang "weight"!
Lubricant fundamentals Part 1 (video 13:42)
Lubricant fundamentals Part 2 (video, additive introduction is in Part 1)
Jane Marie Andrew - Lubrication fundamentals: Understanding the oil, equipment and operating conditions (2019)
NiMAC calculators
tribonet - Tribology calculators (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Lubrication challenges in the wind turbine industry (2019)
How lubricants work I (video 4:44)
How lubricants work II (video 6:43)
Avoiding metal-on-metal surface contact
Lubrication and greasing: working principle (brief)
Amin Almasi - Lubrication of small/medium machines and bearings (2021)
Wes Cash - Best practices for wheel-end lubricants (2018)
Overcoming the most common lubrication misconceptions
Noria - Short videos
Noria - More short videos
Alejandro Meza - Selecting lubricant based on specifications (in general, 2016)
Acculube - Tech talks
CSC - Library
Lubrication Engineers - Articles
Machinery Lubrication - Tips and articles (2017)
Tribonet
Tribonet - How lubricants work (short video)
Plant services - On-demand webinars
What's hot? Current trends in lubrication and oil analysis
Ten hot lubrication trends
Maintaining lube oil quality (2009)
5 ways poor lubrication can cause problems (2018)
Jim Fitch: Be alert to heat as both a contaminant and a symptom (2018)
Noria - How to extend oil life (short video 2017)
RELIABLEPLANT videos
Elba LUBE-INFO
Klüber articles, e.g. Bearing lubricating procedures
Lubrita - References
Rexnord - Library
STLE - Archive
TESTOIL - Knowledge center
Learn Oil Analysis - Articles
Learn Oil Analysis - Resources
Elite Lubrication Specialists - Blog (WARNING: SCARY! short vide, 2018
UE - Lubrication resources and information
Various lubrication systems (2016)
Dr Mary Moon - Radiation resistant lubes (2022)
How to select a lubrication systems (2017)
Jim Fitch - Add oil circulation to gear and bearing sumps for greater reliability (2013)
Garrett Bapp - Best practices for topping up small sumps and reservoirs (2017)
Jim Fitch - Managing the perils of short-volume oil changes (2017)
Lubricating equipment catalogue
General Petroleum - Various classifications
WearCheck Africa - FAQ (2020)
Cepsa - Glossary
TESTOIL - Glossary
Glossary of terms
MOSIL - Glossary
Oil industry abbreviations
Afton - Acronym glossary
Infineum - Acronym glossary
TWC: Three-way catalyst, used for reducing toxic emissions from petrol engines
Engineers Edge
Westmoor - European Lubricants Coding: ISO 6743
Chevron Marine - Technical bulletins
Croda literature
KEW Engineering - Articles
Power Transmission Engineering - Articles
Machinery Lubrication - Articles
Machinery Lubrication - Subscribe
Oil specifications - Articles, references
Precision lubrication - Articles
Trico Corp - Articles
The Five Rights of lubrication
Garrett Bapp - Why you should maintain precise oil levels in sumps and reservoirs (2017)
Choose the right lubricant to reduce air pollution (2017)
Why oil goes bad (2008)
Break-in wear (short video)
Five common lubrication problems and how to fix them
Dr Nathan C. Wright - 3 causes of unreliable equipment and how to eliminate them (2018)
The hidden dangers of lubricant starvation
Heinz Bloch - Lubrication best practices (2019)
The 100 failure modes of lubrication and lubrication programmes (2014)
How to define a lubrication failure (short, 2017)
2004 List of interchangeable lubricants
Are you using the wrong oil?
A Q&A guideline for purchasing lubricants (2007)
Dave Wooton - How to evaluate a new lubricant (2017)
Travis Richardson - How to implement a lubrication quality control process (2021)
Greg Fernandez, Chevron - Best ways to evaluate lubricants (2019)
Purchasing lubricants based on performance
Selecting the right lubricant supplier
Jeremie Edwards - 3 red flags in lubricant supplier agreements (short, 2021)
How to transition to a new lube supplier
How lubricant suppliers impact machine reliability
Why and how to test new oil deliveries (2017)
TESTOIL - Lubricant compatibility testing (video, 2020)
TESTOIL - Compatibility testing (2022)
Vincent Bouillon - How to check the compatibility of hydraulic fluids through laboratory testing (2021, might require registration)
TESTOIL - Lubricant compatibility testing (2020)
TESTOIL - Compatibility testing sample results (2020)
Hazards of changing lubricant brands
Effects of lubricants mixing in a machine
DES-CASE - The downstream effect of lubricant contamination and the value in controlling it (video)
Lubrication for hire: Is contractor-based lubrication right for you?
Advantages of contracting out your lubrication programme
How to manage lubricant waste and disposal
Jim Jung - Track your lubricant’s journey to optimize machine health (2018)
Mobil - Using UV dye for leak detectioAfter 20 years, single technology matrix proves its usefulnessn
Standby equipment oil monitoring and maintenance (2005)
When to use an oil heater (2016)
Wikipedia - What is REACH?
EU modifies lubes ecolabel standard (2019)
Lauren Groff - Guide on writing an effective occupational health and safety (OHS) policy statement
Lubricant toxicity (2016)
Bennett Fitch - What to know about safety data sheets (SDS) (2021)
Apple Rubber - Seals (2018)
Efunda - Seal material compatibility
Seal material compatibility
Parco - Elastomer selection tool
Timken - Guidelines for bearing seals
Garrett Bapp - Practical guide to lip seals (2016)
Michael C. Brown - Wiper seals in hydraulic systems (2017)
Cooper Standard - Seal materials
Advantages of labyrinth seals (2013)
How to mitigate contaminant ingression in hydraulic systems (2017)
Best practices for waste oil management
Reclaim and recycle used oil (2015)
The importance of the colour of engine oil in marketing (LnG EMEA October 2018)
Wikipedia - Diesel exhaust fluid
A more affordable tribometer test (22 May 2018)
In the lubrication industry it is pretty common to have heard of or experienced a lubrication issue due to mixing of incompatible lubricants. Issues encountered include excessive foaming, formation of precipitates or deposits and loss of key performance characteristics such as water separability. Given the gravity of the impact on machine reliability that these issues can cause, there is a demand for testing that can help predict if mixing two lubricants might result in operational issues. Although the lubricants may be deemed equivalent or comparable, that does not mean they are compatible.
***After 20 years, single technology matrix proves its usefulness
Are you having machine failures? Most companies are now realizing that maintaining clean oil is one of the best investments they can make, with contamination at the core of premature machinery failure and diminished lubricant life. A desiccant breather can be used as a first line of defence in preventing contaminants from ruining your equipment.
***
Ninety percent of lubrication professionals say a lack of attention has negatively impacted the reliability of equipment at their plant.
1. Three basic aspects of lubricating oils
What is lubrication?
Lubrication basics
Wikipedia - Lubricant
Lubricants
MRG Labs - Laboratory Lubricant Analyst training (LLA-I) clip
William Kowalski - 6 key factors for lubricant selection
Effects of using a wrong lubricant (2018)
Jim Fitch - Viscosity starved machines (2015)
David Wedlock - Uninhibited base oils (2017)
Oxidation (TOST) test description (Shell Tellus S)
How oxidation occurs (short video)
SKF - Oxidation in hydraulic oil
Antioxidants
Dr Robert M. Gresham - Antioxidants (2018)
Vincent Bouillon, BfB Labs - Overview of oxidation laboratory tests on industrial lubricants (first published in Lubes magazine, 2017, 1.3 Mb)
Joshua Jurs, PhD, Global Industrial Oil Technical Manager, Vanderbilt Chemicals LLC - Long term testing of antioxidants for industrial applications (turbine) in Group I and II base oils (first published in Lubes magazine, Feb 2019, 1.6 Mb)
According to hydraulic component manufacturer Danfoss, if a hydraulic system operates at 85 °C, oil life is just 12% of what it would be if the system operated at 60 °C. And if the system operates at 100 °C, oil life is only 3% of what it would be if the system operated at 60 °C.
Some antioxidants, such as butyl hydroxy toluene (BHT), will turn oil bright red when oxidizing during normal service. While not always cause for alarm, it is clear evidence that the antioxidant is depleting.
Oxidation test RBOT
Mohammad Naseer Uddin - Misconceptions about RPVOT costing companies millions US$ (2018)
Schaeffer - Oxidation and new requirements for Heavy-Duty Diesel (HDD) oils (2017)
Dr Robert M. Gresham: Rust (2018)
Rust and corrosion
Inhibiting rust and corrosion to prevent machine failures
Understanding the differences between lubricant additives (short with links, 2018)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Sulphur-based additives (2018)
Dr Neil Canter - Metalworking fluids: Update on boundary lubricity additives (2021)
Cortec launches new ashless rust and vapour-phase inhibitor (2022)
tribonet - Density of lubricating oil (2022)/
1.1 Viscosity, kinematic, dynamic, ISO VG
tribonet - Lubricant viscosity (2021)
Andrea R. Aikin - Lighter grade oils and off-highway vehicles (2021)
tribonet - VI and viscosity caculators (2022)
NiMAC - Calculate viscosity at given temperature
Dr Nancy McGuire - Calculating lubricant viscosity versus temperature (theory, 2021)
Simon Michell - Oil viscosity made simple (2020)
Art Gatenby - Shear stress and shear rate (2020)
Drew Troyer: Kinematic viscosity (2002)
CSC - What is the difference between dynamic and kinematic viscosity? (2015)
Learn Oil Analysis - Viscosity of lubricating oils (video 2017)
Dynamic viscosity explained (video 2014)
Parker Kittiwake - Viscosity: A lubricant’s most important characteristic
LE - Viscosity
Oelcheck - Viscosity
Synlube - Viscosity
TLT - Viscosity and types of fluids (2017)
Bennett Fitch - Viscometers: A practical guide (2013)
Oil viscosity, how it's measured and reported (2002)
Cannon Instrument - Measuring viscosity of industrial and engine oils (one page, 2017)
Drew Troyer - Understanding absolute and kinematic viscosity (2002)
ISO Viscosity Grades
ISO VG limits
Noria - ISO VG limits
Viscosities equivalent: ISO VG and SAE grades
Industrial lubricants (incl. Viscosity guides)
Brendan Casey - Viscosity of hydraulic fluids
Roymech - Viscosity theory
Viscosity, temperature and pressure
Jim Fitch - The meaning of low viscosity (2007)
Gear oil viscosity calculation (theory, 2018)
Viscosity too high, too much lubricant (short video, 2018)
New instrument can test lube film thickness at very high speeds (2022)
Affordable viscosity tester
Parker Kittiwake - Heated viscometer
Spectro - Portable kinematic viscometers
Viscosity is a fluid's characteristic demonstrating its resistance to flow. By definition, unit of dynamic ("absolute") viscosity is the poise, which is defined as the force in dynes required to move a surface one square centimetre in area past a parallel surface at a speed of one centimetre per second, with the surfaces separated by a fluid film one centimetre thick. We commonly use the centipoise (cP) and for kinematic viscosity the centistoke (cSt). There are other methods for determining viscosity, including Saybolt Universal Viscosity (SUV), Saybolt Furol viscosity, Engler viscosity, and Redwood viscosity. Since viscosity varies inversely with temperature, its value is meaningless until the temperature at which it is determined is reported. Viscosity can increase by oxidation and can be reduced by heating through thermal cracking.
1.2 and 1.3 Viscosity of engine oils and automotive gear oils, SAE, multi-grade
Sydney Moore - Can SAE 0W-20 oils protect heavy-duty diesel engines? (2021)
Boris Zhmud - Viscosity matters (2019)
Lubricant must perform and properly flow, even at the coldest temperatures (2018)
JC Motors - Understanding motor oil viscosity
Does thicker oil fix low oil pressure?
Lubrizol - High temperature high shear viscosity test
SAE adds two new grades SAE 8 and 12 to J300
SAE adds light engine oils categories
Ultra-low viscosity engine oils - Go to page 26
Widman - SAE J306 Viscosity classification for automotive gear oils
Brookfield instrument manual
Brookfield: More solutions to sticky problems (2017)
Early discussion about new SAE grades
Japanese race to reduce viscosity
In America, fortunately only there, they have a disgusting ignorant slang calling SAE numbers "weights", like "30 weight" or "10w30 weight". I suggest that you use it only if you want to show that you know NOTHING about lubricants.
Ford recommends using SAE 5W-50 viscosity grade for its GT-500 engine instead of the SAE 5W-20 or SAE 5W-30 used by other engines.
Arup Gangopadhyay
A small increase in lubricant viscosity may be due to the volatilization of base oil "lighter ends" after prolonged high-level operation (i.e. the lubricant has become "thicker"). Significant increases in viscosity up to 20 percent are regarded as severe, caused by incorrect addition of a higher viscosity lubricant, extensive soot contamination and base oil oxidation.
1.4 Viscosity index, viscosity modifiers, viscosity-temperature chart, calculators
Trevor Gauntlett - The value of VI (2021)
tribonet - Viscosity index (2019)
Viscosity index (short video)
Wikipedia - Viscosity index
TLT - Viscosity index improvers (2011)
Don't ignore viscosity index (2012)
Viscosity modifiers: A fundamental study
Viscosity index improvers
Eliane Gendreau, Janet Wong - Characterizing the velocimetry of viscosity modifier-containing lubricants in the elastohydrodynamic regime (2022)
Afton - HiTEC 5708A VI improver/Pour point depressant
Chevron Oronite OCP viscosity modifiers
Evonik - Viscosity modifiers
Evonik - VISCOPLEX VIIs for transmission fluids
Functional products viscosity modifiers
Infineum - Viscosity modifiers
Lubrizol - Viscosity modifier calculator
tribonet - VI and viscosity caculators (2022)
Widman - VI and viscosity calculators
A2 size nomogram for viscosity index
Applicable range of the above nomogram:
This graph is designed for viscosity indexes between 0 and 100, viscosity of 2-20 cSt at 100 °C, and 6.4-495 cSt at 40 °C. I will publish the wider range graphs (up to VI=200 and viscosity of 2-50 cSt) in near future.
Instruction: This graph has 12 graded lines for viscosity and one for viscosity index. Six lines are nominated for viscosity at 100 and six for 40 centigrade that are paired with letters A, B, C, D, E, and F. To start with the graph:
1. Determine the kinematic viscosity (in cSt) at 100 °C on one of the curved graphs and highlight it with a dot.
2. Determine its paired line using the letters bellow the graph.
3. Find the viscosity at 40 °C on its pair and highlight it with the second dot.
4. Draw a straight line with two dots and using a ruler, and extend it to right hand side to intercept the "Viscosity Index" line.
5. The VI is the interception point of these two lines. You can report it with ±1 accuracy.
6. If you have limitation to measure viscosity at 40 and 100 °C, use ASTM D341 to estimate them.
M. Mahdi Karima
In 1929 Dean and Davis devised a system to express the viscosity/temperature relationship of an oil. The system, viscosity index (VI), was based on the viscosities of base oils obtained from a paraffinic Pennsylvanian crude oil, which was arbitrarily assigned a VI of 100, and base oils obtained from a naphthenic Gulf Coast crude oil, which was assigned a VI of 0.
Calculator: Viscosity at operating temperature
Calculator: Viscosity at operating temperature
Calculator: Viscosity at operating temperature
1.7 Viscosity-temperature chart, blending
A proper viscosity-temperature chart
Various viscosity-temperature charts
Widman - Mixing oils
Viscosities of base oil blends (spreadsheet)
1.5 Pour point, pour point depressant
Pour_point and pour_point depressants
Wikipedia - Pour point
Evan Zabawski - Pour point (discussion, 2019)
Engineers Edge - Pour_point
Noria - When to use an oil heater (2016)
Oronite - Pour_point depressants
Afton - Pour_point depressants (see video)
Evonik - Pour_point depressants
Oil gelation (2016)
1.6 Flash point and Noack volatility
Wikipedia - Flash_point
Noack_volatility_test (but it is done at 250 °C !!)
Volatility of synthetic and mineral oils using TGA
Noack volatility test: a new set of upheavals (2018)
Flash point and fire point
Volatility of engine oil lubricants in service has become of increasing concern to equipment manufacturers because of oil consumption, engine deposits and air pollution effects. Two types of methods are used to assess volatility: The first is based on simulated distillation by gas chromatography (GCD), and the second, Noack volatility, measures bulk oil weight loss after heating at a prescribed temperature/time.
1.8 Foam, entrained air and air release, defoamant, cavitation
The polar nature of engine oil additives gives rise to their foam-stabilizing properties. The splashing action or the mechanical agitation, or both, of the crankcase oil during engine operation causes air and other vapors to be whipped around, resulting in foam generation. In extreme cases, the oil actually can be lost because of the foam. The entrainment of the air in the oil can also decrease the ability of the oil to provide an effective hydrodynamic lubricating film because of the air bubbles that compromise the integrity of the film.
Defoamants are typically polydimethyl siloxanes of various molecular weights and are only required at a few parts-per-million concentration to control lubricant foaming. It should be noted that the siloxanes are dispersed in the lubricant in the form of small particles or globules with specialized equipment. These small particles can be seen through the use of a phase contrast microscope similar to that used in clinical laboratories.
Petr: Some articles are confusing foam with air entrainment. Don't add defoamant unless you really have to.
Cavitation i a violent condition typically in the suction of a pump leading to wear caused by air bubbles or water or oil vapour bubbles.
Finding the cause of foam in oil (short, 2019)
Dan Holdmeyer - Air entrainment, aeration, cavitation and foaming: How are they related? (short, 2022)
Is air a contaminant? (2008)
How foam impacts lubricant health (short, 2017)
TESTOIL - Foaming tendency test
Foaming and air dispersions in industrial gear oils (2015)
More stable foam is due to differential evaporation of the multicomponent base oils (2018)
Foaming and air entrainment (comment, 2018)
Marianne Duncanson - Controlling oil aeration and foam (2001)
Causes and solutions for foaming in oil (2008)
Air entrainment, foaming of hydraulic fluids
How to control aeration (short video)
E. C. Fitch - Cavitation explained and illustrated (2002)
Lon Boyson - How to identify and stop pump cavitation (2021)
Dr Neil Canter - Predicting cavitation in hydraulic systems (2021)
Cavitation or aeration? How to tell the difference (2017)
Foaming keeps coming up for discussion
Entrained air in hydraulic oil
How to control oil aeration (short video, 2015)
Learn Oil Analysis - Microdieseling (2018)
Microdieseling and its effects on oil (2012)
Air contamination can cause a great deal of harm to hydraulic systems. Unfortunately, unless the machine is foaming, with oil spewing from the top of the reservoir, we sometimes overlook this potentially devastating contaminant. Here are a few ways in which air contamination can undermine your reliability effort:
Spongy hydraulics - Air is compressible. This loss of control can slow throughput, increase the percent defective rate, and, in some cases, cause injury or death.
Gaseous cavitation - Some references say gaseous cavitation causes wear, others say it just makes noise. Play it safe and keep as much air out of the oil as possible.
Oxidation - The rate of oxidation is affected by a number of factors, but all else held equal, it is proportional to the amount of oil in boundary contact with air (which, of course provides the oxygen).
Thermal degradation - Did you know that compressing an air bubble from ambient pressure to 3,000 psi increases the bubble's temperature to more than 2,000 degrees F? This is hot enough to thermally degrade oil at the boundary contact between the air and the bubble, which darkens the oil, sometimes giving it a sooty appearance causing varnish to build up on component surfaces.
So, watch for signs of air entrainment or foaming, and take occurrences seriously. Also, periodically test your oil's ability to release air and its tendency to maintain stable foam. If you have recurring problems, evaluate the lube specification and the tank design, and check for low levels and signs of a suction line leak.
Drew Troyer, Noria
Air is both a normal ingredient, and a contaminant, of hydraulic oil. It's a normal ingredient because hydraulic fluid typically contains between 6 and 12 percent by volume of dissolved air. There's no avoiding this. And provided this dissolved air stays dissolved, it poses no problem to the hydraulic system or the fluid.
But if this dissolved air comes out of solution or air is ingressed, via the pump intake leak for example, the result is entrained air. These air bubbles are typically less than 1 millimeter in diameter.
Entrained air increases noise levels and decreases the efficiency of the system by reducing bulk modulus (fluid stiffness). And when entrained air bubbles are compressed at the pump outlet, extremely high peak temperatures result.
This compression of entrained air is said to be adiabatic. That is without transfer of heat to the surrounding fluid. However, localized heating of the oil film in contact with the air bubbles results in high-temperature 'cracking'. The result is oxidation and nitration which accelerate degradation of the fluid.
If that's not bad enough, these rapidly imploding air (gas) bubbles hammer the pump's valve plate and other critical surfaces resulting in erosive wear, a.k.a. cavitation erosion.
Prevention is really the only cure. Certain conditions cause dissolved air to come out of solution. When hydraulic oil temperature increases or static pressure decreases, air solubility is reduced and bubbles can form within the fluid. This release of dissolved air is known as gaseous cavitation.
Decrease in static pressure and subsequent gaseous cavitation often occurs at the pump inlet, as a result of:
--Clogged inlet filters or suction strainers.
--Turbulence caused by intake-line isolation valves.
--Poorly designed inlet (diameter too small, length excessive, multiple bends).
--Collapsed or otherwise restricted intake line.
--Excessive lift (vertical distance between pump intake and minimum fluid level).
--Clogged or undersized reservoir breather.
Air entrainment can also occur through external ingestion. Like gaseous cavitation, this commonly occurs at the pump as a result of:
--Loose intake-line clamps or fittings.
--Porous intake lines.
--Low reservoir oil level.
--Faulty pump shaft seal.
Air can be present in four forms:
- Free air - such as a pocket of air trapped in part of a system.
- Dissolved air - hydraulic fluid contains between 6 & 12 percent by volume of dissolved air.
- Entrained air - air bubbles typically less than 1 mm in diameter dispersed in the fluid.
- Foam - air bubbles typically greater than 1 mm in diameter which congregate on the surface of the fluid.
Of these four forms, entrained air is the most problematic.
Pre-filling components and proper bleeding of the hydraulic system during start-up will largely eliminate free air.
Small amounts of foam are cosmetic and do not pose a problem. However, if large volumes of foam are present, sufficient to cause the reservoir to overflow for example, this can be a symptom of a more serious air contamination and/or fluid degradation problem.
Negative effects of entrained air include:
- Reduced bulk modulus, resulting in spongy operation and poor control system response.
- Increased heat-load.
- Reduced thermal conductivity.
- Fluid deterioration.
- Reduced fluid viscosity, which leaves critical surfaces vulnerable to wear.
- Cavitation erosion.
- Increased noise levels.
- Decreased efficiency.
Cavitation is the term used to describe the formation of gas cavities within a liquid. In a hydraulic system, this is normally taken to mean formation of vapor bubbles within the oil. But it can also mean dissolved air coming out of solution in the oil.
Cavitation erosion occurs when gas cavities in the oil collapse (implode) under pressure in proximity to a metal surface.
In a hydraulic system, the formation of gas cavities is usually, but not always, associated with the presence of a vacuum (negative gauge pressure). And the presence of vacuum-induced, mechanical forces can be far more damaging to hydraulic components than pressure-induced bubble implosion.
How many different causes of cavitation in a hydraulic system can you come up with?
Here are 20:
Clogged suction strainer (or just the presence of one!).
Wrong fluid viscosity.
Excessively low fluid temperature.
Excessively high fluid temperature.
Clogged reservoir breather.
Pump intake line too small (in diameter).
Pump intake drop pipe (inside tank) inlet area too small.
Pump mounted too far above reservoir.
Pump mounted too far from the reservoir.
Excessive pump drive-shaft RPM.
Excessive pump swivel speed (variable displacement units).
Too many bends in pump intake line.
Turbulence caused by intake-line isolation valve.
Collapsed pump intake hose.
Other restriction in pump intake line.
Charge pump wear or failure (closed-circuit HST's).
Excessive internal leakage (closed-circuit HST's).
Faulty or incorrectly adjusted anti-cavitation or load-control valves.
Excessive pressure gradient-decay in working pressure too rapid.
Open return condition.
Whatever the cause, cavitation is detrimental to the long-run reliability of any hydraulic system. Which means tolerating its occurrence is a costly mistake.
So certain conditions can cause this dissolved air to come out of solution, resulting in entrained air.
When fluid temperature increases or static pressure decreases, air solubility is reduced and bubbles can form within the fluid. This release of dissolved air is known as gaseous cavitation.
Decrease in static pressure and subsequent release of dissolved air can occur at the pump inlet, as a result of:
- Clogged inlet filters or suction strainers.
- Turbulence caused by intake-line isolation valves.
- Poorly designed inlet.
- Collapsed or otherwise restricted intake line.
- Excessive lift.
- Clogged or undersized reservoir breather.
Air entrainment can also occur through external ingestion. Like gaseous cavitation, this commonly occurs at the pump - as a result of:
- Loose intake-line clamps or fittings.
- Porous intake lines.
- Low reservoir fluid level.
- Faulty pump shaft seal.
Brendan Casey
Return pipes into hydraulic reservoirs should be larger than the intake pipes and should end below the surface of the oil in the reservoir. Locate the return as far away from the suction as possible to allow the oil as much residence time as possible. Better still, install a baffle between the suction and discharge. Cut the return pipe at an angle so that it directs the flow toward the tank wall.
.
1.9 Base stocks, saturates, aromatic hydrocarbons, API groups
Is Bright Stock irreplaceable? (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Fundamentals of base oils (2019)
Automotive base oil presentation
Chapter in a book: The evolution of base oil technology
Chapter in a book: Base stocks
Base oils
Classification of lubricants
Understanding base oils (2017)
TESTOIL - API Base Oil Classification explained (2022)
Understanding the differences in base oil groups
The fundamentals of mineral base oil refining (2012)
Group II base oils spreading (2017)
Orbichem https://www.lube-media.com/digital-exclusives/- Group I, II and III specifications (example)
Chevron Group II base oils
Chevron Group II base oils for industrial oils
ExxonMobil base stocks
Consider base oil and refining method when selecting lubricants
GTL: Gas to liquids refining
GTL: Gas to liquids produces extremely pure base oils
Biodegradable lubricants (links)
Many of the benefits of high saturates Group II were discovered in use rather than being predicted, such as their much superior dispersant additive response in heavy-duty diesel applications.
Lube oil reclamation and re-refining
Simon Norton - Tricks and traps of oil reclamation (2001)
Stephen Chastain - Using centrifugal separators for oil reclamation (2018)
R. David Whitby - Re-refined base oil quality (2015)
Josh Fernatt - Re-refining: Bringing used oil back to life (2013)
Dr Srďan Sokolovič- Re-refining versus recycling waste oils (2021, might require registration)
Valentina Lucchini- Regenerated base oils for a circular and decarbonised lube supply chain (2021, might require registration)
Chinese re-refining process (2017)
Arslan Enginery - Used oil recycling plant
The evolving global bright stock market (2018)
Ergon - Bright stock alternative (VI = 81, 65% paraffinic)
Chinese plant makes Group III+ Bright Stock (21 June 2019)
1.9.1 What does 'synthetic' mean?
Oil base stocks (Mobil vs. Castrol on page 8)
What is a true 'fully synthetic' oil?
Synthetics - general
Petroleum-based mineral oils function very well as lubricants in 90 percent of industrial applications. However, they also have limitations depending on the type of base stock and additives used, the refining technology, and the operating conditions.
Dr Mathias Woydt, Dr Raj Shah - Future potential framework for synthetic lubricants (2022)
Conventional vs synthetic oil (short article, 2011)
Basics of synthetic oil technology
ExxonMobil synthetics (2015)
Chemours' Krytox - Perflouropolyethers (2017)
Benefits of perflouropolyethers
BASF - Hybrid high viscosity base stock
Methacrylates in combination with Group III in gear oils
Dow Corning - silicones (2017)
Molykote inudstrial lubricants (2007)
Molykote G-900X Series greases for high temperature applications (2017)
The formerly known manufacturer of Molykote lubricants has been Dow Corning, a joint venture between Dow Chemical and Corning Incorporated for over 73 years. In 2016 our parent company Dow Chemical took us over and last year we had a merger with Dupont.
Mathias Sottong
Silicone synthetic lubricants are used when resistance to oxidation, heat and/or water is important and the performance of other types of lubricants is unacceptable. Applications include high-temperature grease and the lubrication of oxygen compressors. Negatives for using silicone synthetics include high cost, poor boundary lubrication and poor additive solvency (they don't accept extreme-pressure and anti-wear additives).
Synthetics - usage
TESTOIL - Is synthetic oil worth it? (2022)
Pooja Sharma - Growth in the synthetics market chimes with sustainability goals of automotive and industrial end users (2022)
Daniel Rader - Synthetic oil or mineral oil? How to make the right choice (2021)
Seal considerations relevant when switching to synthetics (short)
Mary Beckman - Squeezing energy from synthetics (January 2019)
The estimated improvements for the overall energy savings from a friction perspective only between Group III and PAO are in the range of 0.7% to 1.4%.
SAIT - Financial benefits of synthetic lubricating fluids (2016)
AAA report lauds synthetic oils
AAA report (2017, informative)
How true are the performance claims of synthetic engine oils? (2017)
Basics: When to use a synthetic gear oil (short, 2018)
Guidelines for selecting high-temperature lubricants
Synthetic gear oils
Choosing between synthetic lubricants and conventional oils
Advantages of synthetic base oils (2018)
Is synthetic motor oil better for your car? (7 minute video - Answer: Yes)
When does synthetic oil make sense? (short video)
Is synthetic oil better?
Are synthetic lubricants really that good?
PAO-based lubes make machines run cooler (2017)
Are synthetic lubricants always a wise choice?
KEW Engineering - Mineral or synthetic? - Scroll down
Selecting oils with high pressure-viscosity coefficient and increase bearing life
LE - When do synthetic lubricants make sense?
Synthetic lubricants for automotive components
Micro-pitting, wind turbines and using synthetics in gears (links)
Synthetic oils have better resistance to ageing and a longer service life, the time between oil changes could be three to five times that of mineral oils. Synthetic oils have improved thermal and oxidation resistance, improved viscosity/temperature characteristics, better low temperature properties and lower evaporation properties. In some instances, synthetic oils have less tendency to form residues.
1.9.2 Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
PAOs have inherently higher specific heats, so it will absorb more heat allowing the PAO-based lubes and the parts that they lubricate to run cooler.
Jeanna Van Rensselar - The bright future for PAOs (February 2021)
ExxonMobil - Group IV Basestocks: Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
AMSOIL - All synthetics are not created equal
Dodecene-based Synfluid PAOs
Synfluid mPAOs
Mobil 1: True PAO-based synthetic oil
Mobil SHC industrial lubricants (video)
ExxonMobil synthetic fluids and lubricant base stocks
ExxonMobil - Group IV base stocks: PAO
Mobilgear SHC XMP 320 in wind turbines
(Click on the picture)
One property that can improve a machine’s efficiency and lessen energy and fuel consumption is known as the traction coefficient. Consider that if you are able to decrease the amount of force required to move a load across a lubricant film, you can reduce the amount of fuel consumed and the number of emissions produced. The traction coefficient is simply the amount of force required to move a load divided by the load. The closer this ratio is to 1, the more force is required to move the load. As the ratio decreases, less force is needed to move the same load.
Mineral oils by nature have millions of combinations of molecular shapes and sizes in each drop. This inconsistency in molecular size results in a higher traction coefficient. Synthetic base oils are manmade compounds and have much more consistency in several key areas, including their fluid properties and molecular size. This allows a load to move more easily across the lubricant film, thus lessening energy consumption and emissions.
To envision how this works, imagine pushing a sheet of plywood across a series of balls. If the balls are different shapes and sizes (footballs, basketballs, baseballs, etc.), moving the piece of plywood becomes more cumbersome and awkward. Now if you took that same sheet of plywood and pushed it across a series of tennis balls, with each ball the same shape and size, it becomes much easier. This is why most synthetic oils come with claims of reducing energy consumption and can actually help to decrease emissions.
Food-grade lubricants (Beyond the scope of the book)
Jane Marie Andrew - Safer lubricants for food processing equipment (2022)
Harshvardhan Singh - Food-grade lubricants (2022)
Sushmita Dutta - Food-grade lubricants (2022)
Spotlight on food-grade lubricants (2021)
Caitlin Jacobs - Upping the ante on food-grade lubes (6 May 2020)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Incidental contact lubricants for the food industry (2019)
Food-grade lubricants
Advantages of food-grade lubricants (2012)
Martin Williamson - Food-grade lubricants explained (2003)
NSF certified 'food-grade' lubricants
MOSH and MOAH dangerous?
ELGI - The selection and usage of food safe lubricants
Lubriplate - The continuing evolution of food grade lubricants
Lubriplate - H-1/Food grade lubricants
PAG food-grade lubricants
SKF introduces food-grade lubricants
Evonik - Viscoplex 8-219 VI improver for hydraulic fluids registered by InS Services as HX-1 ingredient for H1 lubricants with incidental food contact
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) created the original food-grade designations H1, H2 and H3.
H1 lubricants are food-grade lubricants used in food-processing environments where there is the possibility of incidental food contact.
H2 lubricants are food-grade lubricants used on equipment and machine parts in locations where there is no possibility of contact.
H3 lubricants are food-grade lubricants, typically edible oils, used to prevent rust on hooks, trolleys and similar equipment.
R. Auerswald
1.9.3 Other synthetic hydrocarbons
Alkyl benzene as a compressor lubricant
Alkylated naphthalenes
King Industries - Alkylated naphthalenes (2017)
Anuj Kumar - Polyisobutylene market (2019)
Polyisobutylene
TPC Group - Polyisobutylene
BASF - Polyisobutylene
1.9.5 Polyalkylene glycols (PAG) (polar compounds)
PAG synthetic oil
Polyalkylene glycols
Polyglycols for lubricating large gear drives
Friction and wear reduction mechanism of polyalkylene glycol-based engine oils (2018)
Polyalkylene glycol - synthetic turbine fluid technology
Turbine lubricants: biodegradable, preventative alternatives
Synthetic gear oil selection - See wear of aluminium components
New synthetic OSPs for high performance greases
Klüber: Changeover from mineral oil/polyalphaolefin to polyalkylene glycol
Ucon OSP - oil soluble PAG
Oil soluble synthetic polyalkylene glycols
Innovations in PAG based lubricants
Energy efficient industrial gear lubricants
Sullube - Laboratory analysis of PAG in service
Heat of combustion, flash point, autoignition temperature of PAG
Effects of water on PAG
Removing water from PAG
Worm gears (links)
Sludge and varnish in hydraulic controls of turbines is not a problem with PAG turbine oils owing to their high solubility. However, some PAG turbine oils cause sudden oxidative degradation, resulting from a decrease in anti-oxidants due to poor thermal stability of those PAG base oils.
1.9.6 Esters, amides, environmentally friendly lubes
Rapeseed natural ester fluid for Extra High Voltage transformer (2020)
Cargill natural ester fluid for South African electrical grid (2020)
Schaefer - Esters in synthetic lubricants
Schaefer - Esters in synthetic lubricants
Synthetic esters
Inolex - White papers on esters
Wikipedia - Polyol esters
Rexroth - List of environmentally acceptable hydraulic fluids
Croda Lubricants to launch new Group V base oil technology (amides)
Emery Biolubricants (Esters)
Environmentally friendly lubes for marine use (2017)
Erlend Hanssen Nervold - Ensuring satisfactory aft stern tube bearing lubrication performance (3.1 Mb, 2019)
Erlend Hanssen Nervold - Natural ester oil application in liquid filled transformers (3.3 Mb, 2019)
Vegetable oils and biodegradable lubricants (Beyond the scope of the book)
Spotlight on bio-based lubricants (2021)
Jeanna Van Rensselar - Biobased base stock (2021)
Guillaume Notheaux, Marie Legatte - SEQENS calcium sulphonate biodegradable greases (2021)
Erik Willett - Water-soluble thickeners for industrial and ecofriendly lubrication (2020)
Are biobased lubricants food for microbes? (2018)
Biodegradable lubricants (2012)
Improving vegetable oil properties for lubrication
Biodegradable oils - How to apply and maintain
Controlling degradation in biodegradable greases
New test methods for lubricant biodegradability
Proposed ASTM biodegradable hydraulic fluid standard
Vincent Bouillon, BfB Labs - Assessment and verification of environmental acceptable hydraulic fluids (EAHF) according to the European Ecolabel’s revision, Part 2 (2019)
What you should know about environmentally friendly lubricants
1.9.7 Naphthenics
Nynas - Base oil handbook
Nynas - Group I replacement with naphthenics
Nynas - Naphthenic oils for greater efficiency
Nynas - Anti-oxidant response of low sulphur naphthenic base oils (2017)
1.10 Oil performance, performance additives
Additives in lubricating oils
The chemistry and function of lubricant additives (2017)
Dr Robert M. Gresham - The mysterious world of lubricant additives (2012)
The contributions of additives
Lubrizol - Lubricant fundamentals 2: additives (video, introduction in end Part 1)
Formulations of lubricating oils
Additives
Lubricant additives
Noria - A practical guide to lubricant additives (comprehensive, 2018)
Dr Neil Canter - Sulphurized additives: Types available, key applications and beneficial properties (2019)
Infineum - Additives (2017)
The truth about additive depletion (video)
The critical role of additives in lubrication (2012)
How to determine the quality of a lubricant additive
Dr Robert M. Gresham - Detergents and dispersants (2018)
Rhein Chemie additives
Don Smolenski - What’s up with ionic liquids? (2021)
ZDDP (links)
Neither mineral nor synthetic base oils can satisfy today’s lubricant performance requirements without using additives. Additives are chemical substances, in most part synthetic, which are used in lubricant formulations to adjust a broad of spectrum of properties by enhancing what is desired and suppressing what is unwanted. Many additives are multifunctional products that may exhibit synergistic or antagonistic behavior when mixed together. As a rule of thumb, additives do not add. This makes balancing and optimization of additive systems a challenging task.
1.11 Water separability (demulsibility)
Hi-Pro - What is demulsibility (2 pages, 2022)
Hi-Pro - Getting to know demulsibility (short, 2021)
Jennifer Yeadon - Steam turbines and the battle for good demulsibility (2019)
Hi-Pro - Demulsibility (video, 2019)
The importance of demulsibility in oil
TESTOIL - Demulsibility
Water separability
Test Method for Water Separability
Demulsibility ASTM D 2711
1.12 Supplemental ('proprietary') additives
Pros and cons of enhancing your oil with additives (short, 2019)
Advice for improving oil with additives (2012)
The disadvantages of using anti-friction metal conditioners
The advantages of lubricant conditioners
How engine cleaners affect your oil
Blue exhaust smoke indicates an engine is headed for serious mechanical failure due to a high oil ingress into a combustion chamber. This means an engine is burning too much oil due to worn intake valve guides or poor piston ring control – collapsed or worn rings.
A useful rough guide to measuring oil consumption is the ratio of oil consumption to fuel consumption, because the harder an engine works (fuel consumption) the more oil it will use. A good estimate is 0,6% of total fuel consumption.
REVISION 1
Answers to REVISION 1 (link)
3.1 Engine oils, engine oil additives, ZDDP, fuel economy
Engine oils and their filters (2018)
Richard Widman - How do I understand different engine oils? (2018)
Dr Raj Shah, Dr Mathias Woydt, Isaac Kim - Maximizing fuel economy by thinning lubricating oils (2020)
Engine oil specifications
What is the best oil for my car (2018)
Dr Nancy McGuire - The drive for efficient performance (2018)
Engine oil quality (2015)
Spectro Scientific - Webinar: Engines 101, Understanding basic engine operation
Engine oils
Does thicker oil fix low oil pressure?
Lubrication system: Engine oil functions (video)
Low speed pre-ignition (2019)
Selecting the correct lubricant
Wikipedia - Motor oil
Jeremie Edwards - High mileage oil: a practical guide (2019)
AMSOIL - European motor oils and SAPS content (2018)
Michael C. Brown - Engine oil differences (2016)
Jim Fitch - Four lethal diesel engine oil contaminants (2007)
Dr Robert M. Gresham - Detergents and dispersants (2018)
Peter Wright, INFINEUM - The art of dispersant design (2018)
Friction, lubricants, energy losses, tribo tests, engine oils, base oils, additives, coatings
Passenger car engine oil change intervals: past, present and future (2018)
Additives boost fuel economy
Friction and wear reduction mechanism of polyalkylene glycol-based engine oils (2018)
Dr Neil Canter - ZDDP's uncertain future (2019)
The anti-wear additive zinc dialkyldithiophosphate
Certain amount of ash in the lubricant is needed to increase the filtration efficiency of the gasoline particulate filter (2019)
Zinc phosphate reaction with iron oxide
Trevor Gauntlett - Will ZDDP ever be replaced? (2022)
Joanna Dawczyk et al. - Film thickness and friction of ZDDP tribofilms (scientific paper, 2019)
History of ZDDP
BASF - IRGALUBE FE1 - Save fuel by interacting with ZDDP (2017)
Dr Wilfred T. Tysoe and Dr Nicholas D. Spencer - ZnDTP alone as a primary suspect in the formation of white etching cracks (2019)
Elco ZDDPs
Toyota - Better antioxidants, higher quality base oils to prevent turbocharger coking
New low viscosity grade engine oil specifications in Japan
Antifreeze contamination in motor oil (short video)
ZDDP reaction films formed on rubbing contacts produce enhanced friction in mixed lubrication conditions. The ZDDP reaction film appears to inhibit lubricant entrainment into the contact, thereby leading to a reduced EHD film thickness compared to ZDDP-free lubricants.
Turbocharged gasoline direct injection (TGDI) engines suffer from the presence of particulates in vehicle exhaust emissions, similar to a diesel engine. New oil specifications are needed to counter that.
There are many different quality oils on the market.
At the starting level, we have many brands sold by the dollar stores and convenience markets that are very basic, cheap base oil with minimal, cheap additives. They may or may not pass the API tests, and probably are not registered (so don’t have the Donut and starburst.
Then you have four levels. Look for a moment at big brands. Castrol (as an example) has an entre level GTX that meets the minimum API standards when new and for the minimum time for certification. Then they have Magnatec, which is a much better blend of base oils and a better package of additives. They also have two different synthetic oils, one for price point, made with Group III base oil, and one with traditional PAO synthetic base oil.
Most of the big brands do something along the same lines. I used to carry only the second and fourth (a great semi-synthetic, similar to the Magnatec, and a great PAO/Ester synthetic, similar to Mobil1). About 2 years ago, I started to add the 3rd level (group III synthetic) for people who insisted on synthetic but would go to Castrol for the cheaper product. I am phasing this one out, as once people try the real PAO synthetic, they are not satisfied with the cheaper version.
Richard Widman
Friction and wear (Beyond the scope of the book)
John Cummins - Failure mode and effects analysis (2016)
tribonet - Friction (2016)
tribonet - Stribeck curve (2021)
Wikipedia - Friction
Castrol - Friction Reducing Technologies – Fact or 'Friction'
Friction and traction
Rolling friction
Friction theory
tribonet - Droplet friction is similar to solid friction (2017)
How to reduce friction between surfaces (short)
Paul Farless - Friction modifiers (2021)
Friction modifiers
Friction modifiers (2015)
Jeanna Van Rensselar - Vanishing friction—also called superlubricity (2022)
Superlubricity (2017)
Tribological design guide part 5: Wear theory
Wear theory
Learn Oil Analysis - What is the difference between normal and abnormal wear (2019)
Researchers simulate wear of materials as they rub together (2016)
Basics of wear
Matthew Adams - Adhesive wear (2020)
Abrasive wear (short)
Wes Cash - Polishing wear (2018)
Fretting wear (2021)
tribonet - Fretting wear (2018)
Wear = the silent killer
Randy Riddell - The keys to solving fatigue, the silent killer (2019)
Premature wear (short)
Three common contaminants and the oil analysis tests that can detect them
Basic wear modes in lubricated systems
Common causes of machine failures
Types of engine bearing damage
Main bearing failure chart
Bore glazing and polishing in diesel engines
Friction modifiers are most efficient under boundary conditions or where metal-to-metal contact occurs. Organic friction modifiers have long, soluble chains and a polar head. The polar head attaches to the metal surfaces. The soluble chains line up beside each other much like fibers in a carpet. The polar heads may be comprised of phosphoric or phosphonic acids, amines, amides or carboxylic acids. The soluble chains form dense mono layers or thick, reacted viscous layers. These layers shear easily and create a relatively slippery surface.
Corrosive wear occurs when a machine surface is damaged by chemical attack. The responsible corrosive chemical could be either vaporous or liquid, which might be found in a plant that mixes or handles strong acid or alkali materials. Often the damage to lubricated surfaces comes from acidic by-products generated by the deterioration of the lubricant.
Using composites with a metal matrix and graphite particles takes advantage of self-organization to provide solid lubrication, says materials scientist Pradeep Rohatgi at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. For example, a bearing made out of copper or aluminum contains particles of graphite embedded in the surface. As the surface of the bearing wears down, the graphite smears, forming a film of graphite. The exceedingly low coefficient of friction corresponds to graphite, not the metal the tribofilm is sandwiched between.
Mica, talc and molybdenum disulphide also are possible solid lubricants, but graphite is the most popular because it is the cheapest and has the lowest friction coefficient.
Calcium is a commonly used dispersant in oil due to its low cost and high availability, used to keep any debris collected by the oil from forming a sludge. However, when calcium mixes with the soot calcium phosphate forms, resulting in abrasive particles of soot. This abrasiveness rubs against the engine parts, causing wear and deterioration in effectiveness.
Dr Pranesh Aswath
Sludge, drain intervals, maintenance (Beyond the scope of the book)
Engine oil sludge
Learn Oil Analysis - What happens in engine oil to cause sludge (2018)
Combating and removing engine oil sludge
Evan Zabawski - The 3000-mile myth (2019)
Optimizing oil change intervals in heavy-duty vehicles
Extending oil change intervals on heavy mining equipment
Why smoke is emitted after an oil change (short, 2018)
Extending preventive maintenance (PM) intervals
Used-oil analysis for predictive maintenance
Why predictive maintenance does not work
Proactive and predictive maintenance (links)
Cepsa - FAQ
FAQ after Noria webinar How to detect and control lubrication failure modes
Fresh engine oil (before it gets into the engine) normally has a cleanliness level in the range 16/xx to 18/xx. As soon as it gets into the engine, the cleanliness drops one-two levels because of mixing with the remaining old oil. An oil is "dirty" when cleanliness drops to 21/xx to 23/xx.
Prof. Dr Boris Zhmud
3.2 Engine oil specifications, API service categories
API diesel C service categories (click there for other categories, 2021)
APi introduces three new gasoline engine oil standards, ILSAC GF-6A, GF-6B, and API SP (2020)
ILSAC GF-6A, GF-6B, and API SP engine oil products on the shelf starting today (4 May 2020)
API opens early applications for licensing of ILSAC GF-6A, GF-6B, and API SP engine oils (11 March 2020)
Engine oil licensing and certification system (June 2019)
API updates Motor Oil Guides, to license new passenger car engine oil category sometime in 2020 (2018)
Oil matters guide (June 2018)
API Lubricants Group approves provisional licensing (30 June 2017)
Infineum - North American specification update (14 June 2017)
Heavy duty tests scrutinized (2017)
Infineum - API Engine Oil Classifications (2017)
Engine oil specifications: Is the system broken?
API Engine Oil Service Categories
API Service Classifications
API 1509: After 20 years, single technology matrix proves its usefulness (2022)
API licensing documents
API - Engine oil licensing
API - Engine oil licensing
API - Engine oil guide
API SN and SN-RC performance specifications
API Licenses
New motor oils are bad for older engines (scroll down)
API base oil interchangeability
API guidelines for SAE viscosity grade engine testing
API certification system, 17th edition, Sept. 2012, 136 pages
The Sequence VIII test run on engine CLR L-38 ran out of bearings
Comparing gasoline and diesel engine oils
The lubricant in a crankcase engine is subjected to very complex conditions, with many different conditions in different parts of the engine, variable patterns of driving behavior, and, critically, the contamination of the lubricant by reactive combustion gases and particulates. This makes it very difficult to relate engine/lubricant performance to simple bench tests, and a key feature of engine oil development and testing is the use of engine tests to assess the behavior of the lubricant in the complex combination of conditions present in a firing engine.
Automotive Lubricants and Testing
Valvoline advertised that their oil is better than Mobil 1. I asked in Quora what did ExxonMobil say to that. Bradley Cosgrove replied:
ExxonMobil complained to the API, American Petroleum Institute, the oil trade association, and the API told Valvoline to stop. The results of the sequence tests are not supposed to be used for marketing.
In fact, Valvoline's claim is not a big deal. The sequence IVA is not the hardest test to pass. And it was replaced with the IVB for GF-6.
Oil formulators mainly focus on the IIIG, oxidation, and VIE, or VIF based on the viscosity grade, fuel economy, and VH, sludge.
If they can pass those tests, they can pretty much pass the other two, IVB and VII.
I would be interested to know if Valvoline’s advertised IVA oil was the final formulation, or just a test blend.
The oil companies can change formulations slightly when running each test and the final formulation would be something of a combination of the different formulations.
The final formulation would pass IVA, but maybe not as well as the formulation that was run to achieve the best IVA.
3.2 API service categories - diesel engine oils
API - Latest oil categories (2016)
API CK-4 and FA-4 is done
API approves CK-4 and FA-4 Diesel Engine Oil Categories
Chevron - API CK-4 and FA-4 explained
Shell - API CK-4 and FA-4 (promotional video)
Shell unveils CK-4, FA-4 strategy
Shell - Mobil Delvac 1300 Super 15W-40 does not meet API CK-4 nor Volvo, MACK and Cummins (2018)
ExxonMobil responds to Shell's claim that Mobil Delvac 1300 Super is not meeting API CK-4 (25 June 2018)
ExxonMobil's reply
Ford issues list of acceptable DEOs
Ford issues list of acceptable DEOs (2018)
Ford recommends FA-4 for F-150 (August 2018)
Paccar does not allow use of API FA-4 oils in any of its MX or PX engines.
By the end of March 2019, API has only licensed 100 FA-4 products.
Trucks are able to get 1 to 2 percent better fuel economy using FA-4 oils.
API CK-4 and FA-4 licensed manufacturers (December 2016)
Cummins' CES 20086 and CES 20087 registered oils
Cummins' CES 20086 registered oils
Cummins' CES 20087 registered oils
Detroit Diesel - approved API CK-4 oils
Detroit Diesel - approved FA-4 oils
API CJ-4 performance specifications
Proposed ASTM standard to evaluate diesel engine oils in T-13 engines (2016)
The background behind diesel particulate filters (DPF, 2018)
API Service Category CK-4 describes oils for use in high-speed four-stroke diesel engines designed to meet 2017 model year on-highway and Tier 4 non-road exhaust emission standards as well as for previous model year diesel engines. These oils are formulated for use in all applications with diesel fuels ranging in sulphur content up to 500 ppm (0.05% by weight). However, the use of these oils with greater than 15 ppm (0.0015% by weight) sulphur fuel may impact exhaust after-treatment system durability and/or oil drain interval.
API CK-4 oils exceed the performance criteria of API CJ-4, CI-4 PLUS, CI-4, and CH-4 and can effectively lubricate engines calling for those API Service Categories - they are backward compatible.
API Service Category FA-4 describes certain XW-30 oils formulated for use in high-speed four-stroke diesel engines designed to meet 2017 model year on-highway and Tier 4 non-road exhaust emission standards with diesel fuel sulphur content up to 15 ppm (0.0015% by weight). Refer to individual engine manufacturer recommendations regarding suitability of API FA-4 oils.
API FA-4 oils are not interchangeable or backward compatible with API CK-4, CJ-4, CI-4 PLUS, CI-4, and CH-4 oils.
With the introduction of API CK-4 and API FA-4 diesel engine categories, Cummins developed two new standards, CES 20086 and CES 20087. Cummins has updated its CES 20086 list of API CK-4 registered oils, Cummins CES 20087 lists API FA-4 registered oils.
3.3 and 3.4 Sulphated ash, TBN
Prof. Dr Boris Zhmud - TBN (LUBE Magazine April 2018)
Low SAPS / low ash
TBN, oxidation and additives
Why an oil's base number (TBN) drops
Engine oils' BN (base number) and i-pH value
Learn Oil Analysis - What do TAN and TBN mean (2018)
Measuring reserve alkalinity
Spectro - Measuring TAN and TBN
3.5 ILSAC (International Lubricant Standardization and Approval Committee)
Infineum - ILSAC GF-6 engine tests (2020)
Infineum - ILSAC GF-6 menu
ILSAC GF-6 major milestone: yes vote for proposed limits (2019)/a>
Automakers ask API to update GF-5 now (26 July 2017)
Engine oil specifications: Is the system broken?
ILSAC GF-5 official
GF-5 performance requirements
Toyota Valve Train Wear Test ready for precision matrix testing
Lubrizol - Future ILSAC_GF-6 web site
Infineum - ILSAC_GF-6 web site
Lubrizol additive for SAE 0W-16
3.6 ACEA (Association des Constructeurs Européens d'Automobiles) and Equipment Manufacturers (OEM)
Lubrizol - ACEA 2022 European Oil Sequences for Heavy-Duty Engines (video)
Lubrizol - ACEA 2022 Upgrade for Heavy-Duty Engine Lubricants
2022 ACEA oil sequences for heavy-duty engines
ACEA publishes new edition of Oil Sequences for Heavy-Duty Engines (2022)
ACEA oil sequences 2022
2022 ACEA oil sequences: General requirements
2021 ACEA oil sequences for light-duty engines
ACEA unveils new European Oil Sequences for light-duty engines (2021)s
Infineum - ACEA European oil sequences 2021
Additive maker Infineum announces ACEA A7/B7 and C6 packages (29 June 2021)
Exol Lubricants’ synthetic engine oil meets new ACEA C6 spec (25 June 2021)
George Gill - ACEA releases updated oil sequences (4 May 2021)
The latest updates on the ACEA Heavy-duty oil sequences (13 April 2021)
ACEA revisions progressing (13 April 2021)
Europe base stocks and formulations (2018)
Infineum additives meet ACEA C5-16 requirements
ACEA European oil sequences 2016
ACEA European oil sequences 2012
Sarma - ACEA 2012 versus ACEA 2010 detailed comparison
In the M111 fuel economy test, ACEA C5-16 has a requirement set at 3.0% which is 0.5% higher than C2-16 at 2.5% and significantly higher than C3-16 at 1.0%.
ACEA E6-16 oils are low SAPS, Ultra High-Performance Diesel (UHPD) lubricants designed for use in severe duty, long drain applications. ACEA E6-16 is usually coupled with Daimler MB-Approval 228.51 and MAN 3677, MTU oil category 3.1 and Deutz DQC IV-10 LA.
Typically, Daimler, MAN, MTU and Deutz performance specifications build on top of an ACEA E6-16 with additional performance requirements in areas such as wear protection.
Q: Can SAE 5W-40, API SL/SJ/CF, ACEA A3/B3, engine oil be used in Kia Cee'D 1.6 CRDI?
A: If your vehicle does noy have a diesel particulate filter (DFP), you can use ACEA B4 oil.
The total base number (TBN)) is lower in ACEA A3/B3 oils this means not as much detergent, so things will not be cleaned too well.
Also, cam wear and bore polishing are allowed to be higher in ACEA A3/B3 oils.
And there is no requirement on ACEA A3/B3 oils how dirty pistons can be when using biodiesel. There is this requirement for ACEA B4.
So, the engine could be less clean and there could be more cam wear with ACEA A3/B3.
If you have a DPF, ACEA A3/B3 will plug your DPF due to its high SAPS. That will cause emission issue and rob the vehicle of power.
Your owner’s manual suggests using an ACEA C2 oil if you have a DPF. If you cannot find C2, C3 is acceptable, but there will be a fuel economy hit with using C3.
Bradley Cosgrove
General Motors dexos (Beyond the scope of the book)
General Motors dexos1™ gen 3 performance (2021)
Chevron Oronite receives first dexos1 Gen 3 approval from GM (2021)
dexos engine oils (9' video)
General Motors - approved dexos1 and dexos2 engine oils
GM releases Dexos1 Gen 3 details (18 December 2019)
dexos1 Gen 2 taking off (October 2017)
GM dexos1 Gen 2 licensed oils list now contains 168 oils (July 2017)
General Motors dexos1 April 2017 update
General Motors dexos2 licenses (2017)
General Motors - The new GM dexos2: It’s complicated (2016)
3.9 Two-stroke petrol engines
Wikipedia - Two-stroke engine
Wikipedia - Two-stroke oil
Wikipedia - API TC
Wikipedia - JASO M345 standard
Dan's Motorcycle Repair Course - Two-stroke oil
Can using two stroke oil in a four stroke engine affect it?
3.10 Outboard motor oils
NMMA - TC-W3 Two-stroke oil certification program
Do I need TC-W3 engine oil?
NMMA issues its 2018 TC-W3, FC-W, and Catalyst Compatible FC-W certified oils lists
Understanding two-stroke engine oil
3.11 Motorcycle oils
Lubrizol - New demands for motorbike oils (2020)
INFINEUM - Next generation motorcycle oils (2018)
Lubrizol - Motorcycle oils
Lubrizol - Efficient motorcycle oils (presentation, 2019)
Jaso oil specifications
New JASO T 903:2016 replaces the 2011 version for high friction (MA/MA1) and low friction (MB) oils
Jaso MA and Jaso MB classifications
Lubrizol - Jaso MA and MB
Lubrizol - Differences between Jaso MA and MB
What does Jaso MA2 mean? (Scroll down to discussion)
API SL and API SM formulations contradict Jaso-MA/MA1/MA2
Jaso updates four-stroke motorcycle specification
Lubrizol - Two-stroke motorcycle oils - Jaso M345 standard
Wikipedia - Jaso M345 standard
Motorcycles: Synthetic versus mineral oils
Motorcycle lubricant specifications lacking - Go to page 6
How to change your motorcycle oil (video)
Kawasaki launches new line of motorcycle, ATV and jet ski oils (2022)
To use car oil for motorcycle oil is fine if your motorcycle does not have a wet clutch (clutch pack in the engine oil).
But most motorcycles have a wet-clutch, and if you use an oil that does not meet JASO MA2 motorcycle specs, your shifts will slip and wear out your clutch pack.
You will see your oil darken with the wear materials, and it will wear out much more quickly than one where JASO MA2 oil is used.
JASO MA2 oils have special friction modifiers to make the discs grab when the dynamic friction is right.
A modern car oil has a dynamic friction rating below 1. The MA2 will take it to between 1.85 and 2.50.
Unfortunately, the marketer does not have to tell you how high it is, but some JASO MA2 oils have better traction than others, and all beat the old JASO MA1 spec.
Richard Widman
Ducati calls for the chain to be cleaned and lubed every 1000 km. Also adjust your chain. Every time you clean, check the slack and adjust as needed.
Electric vehicles, hydrogen combustion
Ricardo - Balanced use of technologies is preferable to sole focus
Dr Neil Canter - Heat transfer fluids: Growing in visibility and importance (2021)
Dr Gareth Fish - Lubrizol 'retuning' lubricants for EV duty (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - The brave new world of electric vehicle fluids (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - The electric vehicle grease industry finds its bearings (2021)
Electrified efficiency: ZF offers 800-volt components for electric vehicles (11 March 2021)
Bosch introduces CVT concept for electric vehicles (12 July 2021)
Dr Raj Shah, Alexandra Przyborowski, Nathan Aragon - Electric vehicles: Special requirements and impact on future grease demand (21 June 2021)
Dr Edward P. Becker - Gear lubricants in electric vehicles (2021)
Tribology trends and challenges in electric vehicles (14 September 2020)
Lutz Lindemann - Alternatives to electrification 'politically neglected' (21 February 2020)
GKN Automotive launches strategy to make electric propulsion more affordable (16 December 2019)
Jeanna Van Rensselar - Lubrication and tribology trends (and challenges) in electric vehicles (13 July 2020)
BorgWarner develops innovative torque-vectoring dual-clutch gears for electric vehicles (6 November 2019)
Electric vehicles lubricant technology (2019)
tribonet - Tribology and electric vehicles (2019)
Jane Marie Andrew - The future of lubricating greases in the electric vehicle era (May 2019)
Hans van de Groenendaal, South Africa - Charging electric cars is not without its challenges (15 February 2019)
Dr Edward P. Becker - Lubrication and electric vehicles (February 2019)
Jeanna Van Rensselar - Electric vehicles (2019)
Total launches fluids for electric and hybrid vehicles (6 December 2018)
Minimal impact of vehicle electrification seen on lubricating greases (11 October 2018)
Lubrication electric vehicles (LnG EMEA October 2018)
Lubrication challenges of hybrid and electric vehicles (2018)
Dr Edward P. Becker - Hydrogen internal combustion (short, 2021)
70 percent of new passenger cars sold in 2030 will still have internal combustion engines.
The peak of ICE vehicle production is not expected until 2024, after which time the share of BEVs is projected to grow to 15 percent in 2030. By that time, though, the vast majority of the global fleet of cars–92 percent–is still expected to consist of ICE vehicles.
Schlegel und Partner, 2019
Electric and hybrid cars have some disadvantages compared to conventional cars, one of which is their much heavier weight. The battery pack accounts for a significant proportion of the extra weight. For example, the battery of a Tesla Model S weighs about 540 kg. The car itself weighs about 2240 kg, so the battery pack is 24% of the car’s mass. Fortunately, the battery pack is in the base of the car, keeping the center of gravity low, which greatly assists handling.
R. David Whitby
3.12 Gas engines
Infineum - Latest gas engine oil technology gains INNIO Waukesha approvals (2022)
CIMAC releases Guideline on Lubrication of Reciprocating Gas Engines (3 June 2021)
CIMAC Guideline on the lubrication of reciprocating gas engines (2021)
Peter Harteveld - Gas engine oil for biogas applications (2021)
Deposits of silica or silicates from biogas can adhere to the cylinder heads and pistons causing problems (2020)
Petro-Canada Lubricants launches new and improved DURON GEO (2019)
Infineum - Multifuel lubricant technology (2019)
Functions of oils in gas engines
Generation using gas-fuelled engines
Lubricating natural gas engines
Natural gas engine lubrication and oil analysis
Causes of nitration in engine oil
Gas engine oil analysis: what does the TAN/TBN crossover really mean?
Learn Oil Analysis - What do TAN and TBN mean (2018)
Cummins issues new NGEO specification CES 20092 (2018)/a>
3.13 Marine engines and emergency power generation, marine lubes and fuels
Infineum - A spin test for marine fuel quality (2022)
Ian Bown, Harriet Brice - Lubricating marine engines in the era of low-sulphur fuels (2021, might require registration)
Marine diesel engines
MAN strategy to raise the performance level of cylinder oils by dividing them into two performance categories (2021)
The Wärtsilä RT-flex96C, the world’s largest and most powerful diesel engine in the world today. Built in Finland, the RT-flex96C’s fourteen cylinders can deliver 80080 KW of power or enough to power an entire suburban town. The engine weighs 2,300 tons, stands 44-feet tall and is 90-feet long. In 2006, the Wärtsilä RT-flex96C engine was installed and finally set sail on the Emma Mærsk, a cargo ship that can carry 11,000 20-foot shipping containers at a breakneck speed of 31 knots.
Total Lubmarine launches Talusia Optima cylinder lube
Environmentally friendly lubes for marine use (2017)
Group II base oils in trunk piston engines (2017)
Marine engine cylinder oils (2017)
Chevron Marine Lubricants to phase in Taro Ultra oils in 2019
Croda launches range of non-sheening base fluids (2020)
British diesel locomotive engines use SAE 15W-40 engine oil in diesel locomotives for more than 30 years.
3.15 Jet engines and gas turbines
Wikipedia - Gas turbines
Berly McCoy - The future of jet engine lubrication (2021)
AeroShell Turbine Oil 500
Mobil Jet Oil 387
Mobil Jet Oil 387 gets approvals from GE Aviation (2018)
Mobil Jet Oil 387 gets approvals for Rolls-Royce Trent 700, Trent 800, RB211-524 and RB211-535 engines (2016)
Mobil Jet Oil 387 gets approvals from Pratt & Whitney for TM 1500G engines (2017)
Mobil Jet Oil 387 gets approvals from Pratt & Whitney for PW1100G-JM and PW1400G-JM engines (2017)
Mobil Jet Oil 387 gains new approval with GP7200 engines (2017)
3.16 Automotive gear oils for manual gearboxes and final drives
Wikipedia - Gear oils
Widman - The difference between GL-4 and GL-5
Lubrizol - API GL-5
Manual transmission oils - is thinner really better?
A new level of performance: China GL-5 PLUS
ZF - Lists of lubricants
ZF has updated its lists of approved lubricants (2018)
Gear oil additive package Afton HiTEC 343
Magnetic plugs in dozer final drives
Used oil analysis determines the oil change interval in a big gearbox (2017)
Advances in manual transmission design and lubrication
How Haldex All Wheel Drive (AWD) works (video, 2017)
Q: What manual transmission oil does the 2019 Toyota Yaris take?
A: Toyota’s own 75W fluid, in reality is a synthetic SAE 75W-85 viscosity with the newer non-sulfur/phosphorous additive technology.
If you put thicker oil in it, or one with the sulfur/phos additives, you will ruin it.
Richard Widman
3.17 Limited slip differentials
Wikipedia - Limited slip differential
Castrol - Limited slip gear oil
Mobil - Limited slip gear oil
Doctoral theses: Wet clutch tribology - Friction characteristics in limited slip differentials
3.18 and 3.19 Eaton (form. Fuller) and ZF-FreedomLine, Caterpillar
Eaton Approved Lubricant Suppliers TCMT0020 EN-US, March 2015
Eaton revises its lubricant suppliers list (2018)
May 2018: Eaton lubricant suppliers list
Roadranger SAE 50 Synthetic Transmission Lubricant
Eaton - "Genuine Roadranger" and other lubricants
Cognis Emgard 2979 SAE 50
Cognis Emgard 2979 SAE 50
ZF-FreedomLine manual - select page 11
Caterpillar final drive and axle fluid requirements (2001)
Caterpillar revises its machine fluids recommendations bulletin (2017)
Caterpillar machine fluids recommendations (2017)
Barloworld - Caterpillar fluid specifications and recommendations
3.20 Allison
Allison transmissions - Click on Fluids
Allison fully automatic transmissions for road use
Allison vocational model guide
Allison oil analysis test recommendations
Transmission fluids meeting Allison TES 668 are backward compatible with TES 389® and TES 295®. They are manufactured with synthetic base oils and state-of-the-art additives, building and improving on the proven performance of TES 389 and TES 295 fluids.
3.21 Total Acid Number (TAN)
Wikipedia - Total Acid Number
Learn Oil Analysis - What do TAN and TBN mean (2018)
Oelcheck - NN (neutralisation number) or AN (acid number)
Acid number tests
Parker Kittiwake - General information regarding AN
3.22 Automatic transmission fluids (ATF)
Gearboxes and transmissions
How torque converters work (video)
Wikipedia - Automatic transmission fluid
Facts about automatic transmission fluids
Types of automatic transmission fluids
ATFs today, from http://pqiamerica.com/ATFSURVEYFOLDER2017/PQIA_ ATF_ SURVEY_ REPORT_2017.pdf
ATF labels face a rewrite (26 July 2017)
Discussion: JASO-1A
Mobil's six automatic transmission fluids
Castrol automatic transmission fluids
Automatic transmission flushes (video)
3.23 Farm equipment oils, UTTO, STOU
Chevron Oronite launches innovative THF additive meeting new ZF spec (2020)
Transparency sought for tractor fluids (2018)/a>
Missouri retailers ordered to stop selling John Deere 303 (2017)
Maintain a tractor
How to keep your tractor running (book)
Lubrizol - Universal tractor transmission oils
Lubrizol - Universal Tractor Transmission Oil (UTTO) additives
Fuchs TITAN UTTO - Also click AGRIFARM UTTO MP on the left
Caltex Super Tractor
John Deere developed JD 303 in 1930 and replaced it 1974. Products making exclusive JD 303 claims can no longer be tested for compliance. JD 303 was replaced with J14-B, which was then replaced in 1978 with J20-A. John Deere has declared all of those specifications obsolete and has two current specs – JDM J20C and J20D (which are backward compatible) – along with its genuine Hy-Gard fluid. Some lubricant marketers had continued marketing hydraulic tractor fluids labelled as meeting the 303 standard but critics have said they do not meet the lubrication requirements of modern tractors and can harm them through effects such as damage to the spiral gear in the final drive and causing excessive wear in the planetaries.
September 2020: Oronite has achieved an important milestone by achieving one of the first approvals of a tractor hydraulic fluid (THF) additive offering that meets the new ZF TE-ML 05E specification.
3.24 Brake fluids and coolants
Wikipedia - Brake fluid
Federal Regulations, Title 49, §571.116 - Standard No. 116: Motor vehicle brake fluids
Paul Fritz - Engine coolant basics (2006)
Valvoline launches new coolants technology - for VW and BMW (2021)
For belt-driven power steering, the oil viscosity is ISO VG 32, the electric-hydraulic systems use a fluid that is about half that viscosity.
REVISION 2
Answers to REVISION 2 (link)
5. Lubrication conditions, EHL, anti-wear, EP
Lubrizol - Lubricant fundamentals 1 (video)
States of lubrication
tribonet - Hydrodynamic lubrication (2017)
Wikipedia - Hydrodynamic lubrication
Lubrication
Lubrication regimes
At pressures above about 3000 psi (206 bar) there begins a significant increase in the viscosity of mineral oils. At 5000 psi (345 bar) the viscosity of a typical Group I base oil is approximately double its viscosity at atmospheric pressure. At higher pressures, the rate of viscosity increase accelerates and at very high pressures mineral oils cease to behave like liquids and tend to become waxy solids. Pressure viscosity coefficients are different for different types of oils, particularly for synthetic oils.
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL) theory
Timken - The right thickness of lubricant
How temperature impacts oil condition
The effects of temperature on lubricants (2007)
EHL with greases
How lubricants combat friction and wear (2012)
Friction modifiers
Friction modifiers (2015)
Jeanna Van Rensselar - Extreme pressure and anti-wear additives (2018)
Wikipedia - Extreme pressure (EP) additives
Dr Neil Canter - Extreme pressure additives
The role of Extreme Pressure additives in gear oil
Dr Yulia Sosa - Extreme pressure and antiwear additives in rolling bearing lubrication (2021)
Limitations of EP additives
The effects of EP additives on worm gearboxes (2012)
The danger of EP additives on worm gearboxes (short video, 2018)
Elco extreme pressure additive
So called "film strength": a novel definition by Noria:
Film strength can be described as the lubricant’s ability to lessen the effects of friction and control wear by means other than the film thickness. As mentioned, the viscosity is the primary contributor to film thickness during hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic lubrication.
When the base oil viscosity is insufficient to overcome metal-to-metal surface contact, the base oil and additive chemistry work together to create a surface protection mechanism. During these boundary conditions, boundary lubrication is also influenced by the chemical and physical properties of the mechanical surfaces and any contributing environmental factors.
See the following articles:
Bennett Fitch - The importance of lubricant film strength (2017)
Film strength and load carrying capacity of lubricating oils (1958)
Solid lubricants
Jane Marie Andrew - Solid lubricants (2019)
Solid-film lubricants
Jane Marie Andrew - Expanding the repertoire of solid lubricant molybdenum disulphide (2021)
Wikipedia - Molybdenum disulphide
IMOA - Molybdenum sulphur compounds in lubrication
Climax Molybdenum - Molybdenum disulphide in lubricant applications
High temperature graphite bearing lubricant
Metal sulfite, or Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), is widely used as an additive in solid lubricants because of its low friction properties and robustness. However, at low loads or resistance, it shows excessive wear and higher friction.
Graphite is a good solid lubricant in humid air, but it loses the efficiency in dry conditions.
Using composites with a metal matrix and graphite particles takes advantage of self-organization to provide solid lubrication, says materials scientist Pradeep Rohatgi at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. For example, a bearing made out of copper or aluminum contains particles of graphite embedded in the surface. As the surface of the bearing wears down, the graphite smears, forming a film of graphite. The exceedingly low coefficient of friction corresponds to graphite, not the metal the tribofilm is sandwiched between.
Mica, talc and molybdenum disulfide also are possible solid lubricants, but graphite is the most popular because it is the cheapest and has the lowest friction coefficient.
Graphene, nanomaterials, 2D solid lubricants
Graphene, a recently discovered material, is defined as a form of elemental carbon composed of a single flat sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a repeating hexagonal lattice. This lacy, honeycomb-like sheet of carbon atoms — essentially the most microscopic shaving of pencil lead you can imagine — is not just the thinnest material known in the world, but also incredibly light and flexible, hundreds of times stronger than steel, and more electrically conductive than copper.
The latest research interacts (a) molybdenum disulphide with nano-diamond particles on one surface and (b) a diamond-like carbon (DLC) surface on a ball to determine if superlubricity could be detected in a similar manner to graphene. It works by breaking moly and creating a onion-like carbon structure.
Diana Berman - Nanostructured materials for tribological applications (2022)
Researchers at an Austrian university have found lubricating properties in a two-dimensional nanomaterial (27 April 2021)
Dr Raj Shah, Dr Steve Nitodas, Isaac Kim - Nano-additives show promise in reducing friction and wear (17 March 2021)
Nanopolishing for surface perfection
Graphene-based nano-lubricants
Nano-technology improves bearing performance
Jeanna Van Rensselar - 2D MXenes: Solid lubricant additives with tunable mechanical properties (2022)
6. Industrial gear oils
Wikipedia - Gears
Industrial gear oils in 2016
Gear drive lubrication performance improvements (page 18, 2018)
Lubrication of gears
John Sander, LE - Selecting gear lubricants (pdf)
David Hobson, Daniel O’Meara - Consider the benefits of synthetic industrial gear oils to extend drain intervals and protect your gearboxes (2022)
John Sander, LE - Selecting gear lubricants
Selecting the right industrial gear oil
Precision gear lubrication
Roymech - Gear lubrication
Trends in industrial gear oils (2008)
Formulation challenges for industrial gear lubricants (2018)
AMSOIL - DIN 51517 Part 3 (CLP) update (2010)
Klüber - Common industrial gear oil specifications (short)
Gear drive lubricants
Lubrication selection for enclosed gear drives
Trends in industrial gear oils
Maximising gearbox performance
FZG test description (Shell Tellus S)
LE - Improving gearbox lubrication by oil analysis condition monitoring, FZG machine
Gear lubrication - Gear protection also at low oil temperature
Troubleshooter’s guide to gear drives
Lubricant problem in an industrial gear drives (2019, includes two contributions by Petr Vavruch)
Changing bad gear oil habits (2016)
Monitoring large particles in gear oils
Flushing methods (Solving recurring oxidation problems)
Articles by Lawrence G. Ludwig
GEAR Solutions - Articles
Xtek - Technical papers - select gear terminology
SPX Cooling Technologies - Evolution of cooling tower gearboxes (2018)
Improving anti-rust property of EP industrial gear oil (sale offer)
Vavruch and de Vaal - New industrial gear oil: focus on EP performance
Impact of gear tooth surface roughness and advanced coatings on effective gear tooth friction coefficient (2017)
SEW-Eurodrive - Equivalents - Pages 185-6
ExxonMobil - Energy efficient industrial gear lubricants (2013)
Lubrizol - Developing an energy-efficient industrial gear oil (2017)
Shell Omala grades
TOTAL gear oils
Idemitsu TDF continuously variable transmission oil
Lubricating with FlexGear
Coupling lubrication and maintenance requirements (2002)
Grease-filled gearboxes (links)
Overfilling a gearbox sump can be just as damaging as underfilling. Overfilling may cause air entrainment and foam, overheated oil, and leakage due to overflow. Over time, oxidation may also occur due to increased temperatures and exposure to air.
Micro-pitting, wind turbines and using synthetics in gears
Martin Vincent, Stephen Steen - Improving wind turbine fleet management with in-line wear debris detection (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Greases for slow and steady wind turbine bearings (2021)
Jane Marie Andrew - Fundamentals of wind turbines (2019)
Schaeffler - Wind turbine
Schaeffler - Spherical roller bearings (2018)
Micropitting
Martin Vincent, Stephen Steen - Improving wind turbine fleet management with in-line wear debris detection (2021)
Stopping micropitting by using the right lubricant
Micropitting in wind turbines
Preventing micropitting and surface fatigue
Lubrizol - Meeting micropitting and materials compatibility challenges
Klüber - Synthetic gear oils (2018)
Klüber - Gear lubrication: Stopping micropitting
The effect of the surface roughness on micropitting
Proper lubrication is key to wind turbine longevity
Choosing the right wind turbine lubricant
Extending gear life with synthetic lubricants
Synthetic gear oil selection
Choosing between synthetic Lubricants and conventional oils
SAE - Traction coefficient measurement
Ashley Crowther - The extreme ends of turbine condition monitoring (2022)
Klüber - Lubricating gears with synthetic oils
Klüber - Specialty lubricants for optimum operation
Mobilgear SHC XMP 320 in wind turbines
Shell Omala S4 GX 680
Total Carter SH
Should you use synthetics? (links)
In addition to requiring oils to meet DIN 51517-3, Siemens MD requires an FVA 54 micro-pitting resistance test , dynamic foam testing and several stringent protocols for ensuring internal paint, elastomeric seal and liquid sealant compatibility.
The adequate functioning of most utility-scale conventional wind turbines depends to a large extent on the performance of the gearbox. These gearboxes transform slow speed, high torque wind turbine rotor rotations to the higher speed required by the generator, which converts the mechanical power to electricity. They are typically configured to have planetary gearsets and bearings that require special attention due to their extreme operating conditions and high lifetime expectations. The wind turbine gearbox is the most critical component in terms of high failure rates and down time and 76% of gearbox failures are bearing-related and mostly due to high-speed shaft and intermediate-speed bearing axial cracks.
Steven Lumley, WearCheck
6.1 Worm gears (PAG)
Guidelines for selecting gearbox oil (short, 2018)
This is a surprisingly bad article.
The first, essential, question, completely ignored, is what gearbox it is. If it has worm gears (like in the picture), you MUST NOT use EP formulation. If you do, you might expect "increasing wear issues". If it is slow, it is likely to be a worm gearbox.
The picture is bad in itself, it is not a heavily loaded gearbox.
The second question is whether a good quality oil is used. A good ISO VG 680 oil at 52 °C will not be "dropping viscosity" unless you top up with wrong oil. A good mineral oil would be OK if it is not a worm gearbox.
In spur and helical gearboxes, synthetics are necessary only at temperatures above 90 °C. As mentioned, PAO is easier to use. However, it is WRONG to advise that flushing is not necessary.
You do not get pure PAO. It probably contains some ester to prevent additives dropping out. Ester will clean the machine that previously used mineral oil. That will clog the filter.
Seals are mentioned. PAO is happy with seals used with mineral oil. BUT if the machine is old, the seals are worn and might start leaking with PAO because PAO might not expand them as much as the mineral oil would.
For worm gearboxes, PAG is far superior to anything else. You don't need a heavier viscosity. In fact you usually use a lower viscosity PAG than you would with mineral oil.
If you don't use PAG, you should use the 150 year old formulation of steam cylinder oil with 5% lard in it.
I don't see a need for a cooling system.
Worm gear lubrication
Bennett Fitch - The right way to lubricate worm gears (2016)
Klüber - Improving energy efficiency with proper gear oils
Klüber - Gear oils based on polyglycols
PAGs perform better in worm gears
Reducing wear particle generation (filtering and using PAG)
Roymech - Worm gear theory
The ins and outs of worm gears
Worm gears, also Misaligned - Scroll down
Avoiding worm gear problems
The effects of EP additives on worm gearboxes (2012)
Limitations of EP additives
The danger of EP additives on worm gearboxes (short video, 2018)
6.3 Open gears
Berly McCoy - Choosing the right open gear lubricant (2019)
Lubrication of open gears
Lawrence G. Ludwig - Applying open gear lubricants (2009)
Philip de Vaal - Open gear lubrication
Shell Malleus GL 3500
Lower wear is achieved with spray lubrication compared to dip lubrication. Graphite is known to promote abrasive wear.
Gear failures (Beyond the scope of the book)
Berly McCoy - Modeling tools for gear design and failure prevention (2021)
Gear failures
Mary Beckman - Gear failure analysis (2019)
Rexnord - Failure Analysis • Gears – Shafts – Bearings – Seals (1978)
Gear failure causes (short)
Analyzing gear failures (2012)
Bob Errichello, Jane Muller - Analyzing gear failures (2001)
Recognizing gear failures
Bureau Veritas - Case study: Gear oil laboratory tests, water contamination (2017)
When receiving a new or reconditioned gearbox, open the drain plug and pump fresh oil through the system. This removes any contaminants that might not have been cleaned out during a rebuild or from a new machine. This will ensure your critical equipment has a better chance of reaching its life expectancy rather than coming to a grinding halt because of unforeseen contamination.
Surface finishing impacts how gears mesh in a mechanism by causing a build-up of tooth thickness. Not accounting for dimensional changes that may occur during surface finishing, case hardening or heat treatment can lead to poor performance and gear train failure.
Chain and wire rope lubrication (Beyond the scope of the book)
Jeffrey E. Turner - Improving oven chain lubrication (2017)
John L. Wright - Chain lubrication in drives and conveyors (2002)
LE - Chain lubrication
Advice for chain lubrication
Bearings, Belts and Chain - Care and maintenance of rolling element bearings
Bearings, Belts and Chain - Articles
Lubrication of high-temperature chains
Improving oven chain lubrication
Rotalube chain lubricators
R. David Whitby - Lubrication of wire ropes (2020)
Lou Honary and John Sander - Lubricants for wire ropes (2015)
Jeffrey E. Turner and Christopher Barnes - Wire rope lubrication (2002)
Lubricating wire ropes (short video)
Advice for lubricating wire ropes
Best lubrication methods for wire rope applications
Marine wire rope lubricator
Viper wire rope lubricator (video)
Viper wire rope lubricators
Wire ropes used in industrial and mining applications wear from the inside out. The individual wires that make up the cable bundles slide and rub against one another as the cable turns around the sheave and drum. Cables are generally lubricated during the manufacturing process. However, the "initial fill" lubricant injected between the wire fibers during manufacturing is quickly squeezed out once the cable is placed under load.
The lubricant should be replenished promptly after first use to assure that the exterior and interior surfaces remain coated with an oil film. Pressurized lubrication collars can be most helpful in accomplishing complete coverage while minimizing waste.
7. Greases (also 7.3, 7.5 and 7.7)
Grease life is not only determined by the operating conditions and bearing type. The grease type and grease quality are also very important. A good grease has a stable consistency, good shear stability, favourable bleeding and flow properties, and good boundary lubrication, including lubricity properties. The base oil viscosity should also be favourable for the speed and temperature.
Red grease, blue grease: what does grease color say about grease? (short, 2013)
Harshvardhan Singh - A beginners guide to grease (2021)
NLGI High-Performance Multiuse (HPM) grease specification (2021)
NLGI HPM grease specification booklet (2020)
Marc Oosterlinck about greases (2021)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Greases for slow and steady wind turbine bearings (2021)
Mary Moon - NLGI unveils new grease specs (2020)
Rich Wurzbach - 7 steps to trouble-free grease lubrication (2018)
InterflonUSA - What is the difference between oil and grease? (2018)
Wikipedia - Grease
Grease basics
TLT - Grease manufacture (2017)
TESTOIL - Grease fundamentals and analysis (webinar)
Grease construction and function
Mobil - Grease: Its components and characteristics
Calculating grease quantity, frequency
Different types of grease
Aesthetics in lubricating greases (2018)
Chapter in a book: Greases
Understanding lubricants Part I
Discussing greases - Scroll up!
Shell - Presentation for the mining industry
SKF - Understanding grease technical data
Grease additives
Grease selection (2018)
Timken - Selecting greases
Consider consistency when selecting grease
Step-by-step grease selection (2005)
Application is key in grease selection
Selecting a high temperature grease
High temperature grease guide (2002)
Choosing a high-temperature lubricant
Choosing a high-speed grease
Nicolas Samman - Grease cleanliness: How clean should grease be? (2003)
Biobased greases (2014)
Mary Beckman - Can you grease a squeaky railroad wheel and still stop a train? (2019)
Low-noise greases (2012)
Food-grade greases
STLE - Grease volumes and frequencies
Machinery lubrication - Articles about greases
TOTAL greases
Castrol Tribol GR brochure (2021)
TLT - Grease problems and solutions (2019)
UE - Bearing inspection and lubrication
Grease analysis (links)
Grease thief for taking samples
Timken - Grease tests and limits --- and Commercial greases
Testing grease consistency with rheometer (2015)
ASTM D3527: Are we using the right system to measure the life of a wheel bearing grease? (2018)
Noria - Grease colour (short video)
Des-Case - Proper lubrication for greased bearings (Centralized application systems)
Storing grease to avoid bleeding
Jim Fitch - Grease dry-out: causes, effects and remedies (2011)
The bleeding rate, which is the bleeding per unit of time, should ideally somehow match the starvation rate. In the beginning of bearing operation, the lubricant film will be relatively thick and no additional feed of base oil is required. A too high bleeding rate will exhaust the grease at an early stage, leading to short grease life. If the bleeding rate is too low, the contacts will starve rapidly, leading to early damage.
When using automatic grease lubricators that are set for several months, draw a line and record the date at the level of the lube during each weekly inspection. This allows you to instantly spot a plugged or faulty lubricator.
Large, abrasive particles in grease may be more damaging than the same particles in oil because once the grease is applied, no opportunity exists for the contaminant particles to be removed; whereas in oil, the particles may be quickly removed by filtering. The particles in a grease sample may be scrutinized by dissolving the grease with a suitable solvent and then preparing a ferrogram. A mixture of toluene and hexane is effective at dissolving many commonly available greases.
Applying a nice, thin layer of grease to sliding surfaces such as boom slides, crane outriggers or any sliding surface can be a problem. By using a regular paint roller of whatever size fits your application (2-inch, 4-inch, etc.), you have the ability to roll a nice, thin coat of grease on the area instead of all over yourself. Paint-roller pans work great and are available with snap-on covers to keep grease clean until you need to use it.
Al Allen, Sundt Construction
Grease guns and systems (Beyond the scope of the book)
Before installing grease into a new grease gun, consider disassembling the gun and cleaning it thoroughly. I have found metal shavings numerous times in different brands of new grease guns. The metal shavings appear to be from the manufacturing process of the grease gun.
John Flynn, RJ Reynolds Tobacco Co.
Bennett Fitch - Better greasing practices (webinar, 2021)
Rich Wurzbach - Strategies for overcoming gravity’s impact on grease (2018)
Grease guns
Anatomy of a grease gun
Grease gun best practices (2012)
What should we consider before purchasing a grease gun (short)
How to calibrate new grease guns (short 2018)
The benefits of ultrasonic grease guns
SDT Ultrasound Solutions - Ultrasonic grease guns
Ludeca - LUBexpert ultrasound grease guns
Wes Cash - Single point lubricator buyers guide (2020)
Brad Jeffries - Centralized grease lubrication systems (2005)
Heinz Bloch - Lubrication best practices (2019)
7.1 and 7.2 Grease thickeners, polymers and compatibility
Spotlight on greases (2021)
Liwen Wei, Novitas - Quantum leap in the manufacturing of polyurea grease (2020)
CHEMTOOL - Grease thickener characteristics (2020)
Grease industry trending toward calcium (2 January 2019)
Why certain greases are more popular (2018)
Castrol - Grease thickeners
Dr Anoop Kumar - Choosing a multi-purpose grease: Lithium complex or calcium sulphonate (2014)
Advantages of using polyurea grease (short, 2018)
Polyurea greases (2014)
We see demand catching up with supply by 2024. Seventy-five percent of today's greases use lithium-based thickeners, and 8 percent of lithium produced in the world today is used for grease. This is expected to change dramatically, as the share will likely fall to 2 percent in the future.
Silke Brand-Kirsch, 2019
Polyurea greases have excellent oxidation resistance because they don't contain metal soaps such as calcium, lithium, etc., which are pro-oxidants to varying degrees. Therefore, they are widely used in lubed-for-life bearings.
Aluminum complex grease accounts for only 3 percent of total global grease production.
But aluminum complex grease could bring performance benefits in selected performance areas, including a high dropping point, excellent water resistance, good shear stability, very good oxidation stability, excellent pumpability, chemical resistance, non-toxicity and heat reversibility.
Applications where both water resistance and heat reversibility are important could include the steel, paper and automotive industries, as well as construction machinery and trailers.
Bela Toth, MOL-Lub Ltd
Aluminum complex grease are better than lithium and comparable to lithium complex. These greases can also be used as food-grade lubricants, unlike lithium or lithium complex greases.
Vijay Deshmukh
Bill Ward - Calcium sulphonate thickeners (2006)
Calcium sulphonate water resistant greases
Diurea chemical structure
Polymers in greases - Go to page 20
Dow Corning Molykote silicone-based high-temperature greases
Dow Corning - Molykote G-900X Series high-temperature (220 °C) greases (2017)
Molykote G-900X Series greases for high temperature applications (2017)
Lynne Peskoe-Yang - Factors influencing how grease performs at extreme temperatures (2020)
Axel Christiernsson - The ability of a greases to withstand, reject or absorb water
Axel Christiernsson - The effect of water ingress on environmentally adapted greases (2017)
Evan Zabawski - Grease (in)compatibility: Just say 'No!' (short, 2019)
Rich Wurzbach - Grease compatibility (2017)
Rich Wurzbach - The risks of grease mixing (quite short 2018)
Understanding grease compatibility
Grease compatibility
Elba - Grease compatibility
Elba - Grease compatibility
LE - Grease compatibility
Mobil - Grease compatibility
Grease compatibility and innovations (2016 forum)
Practical experience with grease incompatibility
When converting from one grease to another, double check to make sure that your soap bases and oils are compatible. The short and simple way to do this is to have your supplier or an independent test lab perform a worked penetration test on a mixture of the greases. Mixing greases can change performance. More often, mixing leads to loss of consistency, but for some mixtures, hardening may occur. Mixing of greases can also result in lowering of dropping points and changes in oil bleed rate. Individual grease lubricants most often perform better than the grease mixtures.
While grease may darken due to harsh operating or environmental conditions, grease manufacturers use colour simply to identify the type of grease and to make it more appealing to consumers.
Noria
7.4 Grease lubricated rolling element bearings
Rolling element bearings (links)
Clay Allen - Implementing best practices for motor greasing (2018)
Jim Fitch - How grease kills bearings (2003)
Right re-greasing frequency (short video)
Developing an effective motor bearing re-greasing strategy
Timken - Applying lubricants correctly
The basics of an electric motor re-grease program
Michael Weigand - Rolling bearing lubrication for critical running conditions (2006)
Diagram: Re-lubrication intervals
Electric motor bearing greasing basics
Mobil - Guide to electric motor bearing lubrication
Initial fill grease quantity
SKF - Replenishment
SKF - Quick tool for re-lubrication calculation
SKF - Lubricator calculation program
Other SKF calculators
LubeCoach calculators
Prolonged bearing life through effective grease lubrication
Re-greasing: How grease kills
Noria - Dangers of overgreasing (2011)
Heinz Bloch - Lubrication best practices (2019)
UE - Ultrasound assisted lubrication basics (2016)
SDT Ultrasound Solutions - Product manuals/
UE- OnTrak SmartLube monitoring bearings plus automatic lubrication (55 minute webinar, 2021)
UE- Ultraprobe 401 digital grease caddy
Rexnord - Greasing (contrary guidance)
Determining lifespan for lubed for life bearings
Grease-lubricated electric motors with grease relief valves (2017)
Stop pumping oil into bearing grease (2012)
Ultrasound Solutions - LUBExpert re-lubrication tool (2017)
Ultrasonic energy measurement to improve effective lubrication practice (2012)
Timken - FAQ
tribonet - What contributes to thicker grease films?
Enviropeel housing spray bearing protection
Rolling element bearings (links)
Rolling element bearing failures (links)
George Frey - Electric motors: Keep it clean, keep it dry, keep it tight (2017)
Temporary shear thinning at a high shear rate happens in greases but the base oil viscosity may be permanently reduced. This happens under extreme conditions, such as in the case of high pressure, where the viscosity is very high. These conditions occur in the EHL contacts of rolling bearings. That's why viscosity modifiers (VI improvers) should not be used in bearing (and gear) oils.
Outer-ring rotation causes very severe conditions for the grease in the bearing. The grease on the shields or covers is subjected to centrifugal forces exceeding the yield stress, resulting in the grease flowing continuously into the bearing and causing churning, heat development and high temperatures. Moreover, grease on the bearing outer-ring shoulders or seals will show accelerated oil bleeding. In the case of outer-ring rotation, the base oil/grease is easily lost, and good sealing is therefore a prerequisite.
Roller bearings require a softer grease than ball bearings (on a horizontal shaft). Angular contact ball bearings pump grease through the bearing from the small inner ring diameter side ("low side") to the larger inner ring diameter side ("high side"). In order to prevent this, ideally a stiff grease is preferred on the "low side" and a softer grease on the "high side." Vertical shaft applications require a stiffer grease to prevent grease falling into the bearing.
At very low temperatures, the tendency of grease to bleed decreases and the hardness (consistency) of the grease increases. This may ultimately lead to an insufficient supply of lubricant to the contact surfaces of the rolling elements and raceways so the normal lubricating ability of the base oil in the grease can be diminished. It will then be the grease in its totality that will lubricate. This will result in a high torque, which may cause slippage of the rolling elements and therefore wear. This point is called the low temperature limit (LTL).
When hand-packing roller bearings, wear disposable food-grade gloves. This has a two-fold effect. First, it helps keep your hands free from grease, but it also helps keep the bearing free from contaminants. Particles and chemicals on hands can lead to premature bearing failure. (Jason Throop, Sara Lee Corp.)
Advantages of oil mist systems:
In bearing applications where high contamination levels are a concern, consider converting grease lubrication systems to oil mist lubrication. Oil mist systems are slightly pressurized, helping to exclude contaminants. Use a pure mist system for rolling-element bearings and purge mist for gearboxes and journal bearings.
Noria's Machinery Lubrication I training
7.6 Grease-filled gearboxes
How not to lubricate a gearbox
Discussion: Grease for gearbox?
Mobilux EP 023
Using grease for gear lubrication
Grease-lubricated equipment should not be kept idle for long periods. The base oil in the grease could separate out and get drained from the thickener, which does not have any lubrication properties. Stop and think about all of your equipment to evaluate the potential risks of grease separation.
7.8 Grease or oil?
Can you replace oil with grease? (short)
Understanding lubricants Part II
Oil lubrication vs. grease lubrication (video)
Grease vs. oil debate
Is it advisable to use grease instead of lubricating oils?
8. Bearings (also 8.2)
Waukesha Bearings Plus - Plain bearing failures (2021)
Jim Fitch - Add oil circulation to gear and bearing sumps for greater reliability (2013)
The inner life of bearings, Part I: How lubrication really works
The inner life of bearings, Part II - Lubricant selection and application frequencies
Tribological design guide part 1: Bearings
Tips for better process pump lubrication
Is your bearing getting fresh grease? (2012)
Wikipedia - Plain bearings
Chris Corneliussen, Kimberly Evans - Self-lubricating plain bearings (short, 2020)
VescoPlastics - Self-Lubricating bearings (short, 2017)
A case study: Plain bearing failures
Bearing materials
Paper machines, spindle oils, sugar mills, Morgan and Danieli
Wes Cash - Lubricating paper machines (2017)
Castrol spindle oils
Castrol Hyspin Spindle Oil E 5
Mobil Velocite spindle oils
Sugar mill bearings
Castrol - Biodegradable sugar mill lubricant
Shell Morlina S2 BA oils for Morgan and Danieli
Clean, dry oil is essential to maintain healthy equipment life and prevent shut-downs.
8.1 Rolling element bearings
David Schaljo, NKE Austria - Considerations for choosing the correct rolling element bearing characteristics (2019)
Rachel Fowler / Xiaolan Ai, Timken - Bearing fatigue life and the advantages of virtual bearing testing (2019)
Wes Cash - Understanding bearings prior to lubrication (2019)
Dr Nancy McGuire - Designing better bearings (2019)
MIT - Rolling bearings
Rexnord - Checklist: specifying bearings for beverage application
FAG - Rolling bearing lubrication
Klüber - Lubrication of rolling bearings (44 pages, 2011)
Klüber - Guide to proper bearing lubrication procedures (12 pages, 2017)
How rolling element bearings work
Bearing clearances and fits
SKF - Articles - Select Mechanical Maintenance (need to register)
Bearings, Belts and Chain - Care and maintenance of rolling element bearings
Bearings, Belts and Chain - Articles
Steven Katz - Five ways to prevent bearing failures (2012)
Bearing news - Articles
Lubrication of pumps
Tips for better process pump lubricationwo villagers drinking at the Bidford Mop annual fair in the village of Bidford-on-Avon in the English county of Warwickshire, circa 1900
UE - OnTrak SmartLube product demonstration (56' webinar, 2022)
UE - Subsurface fatigue and bearing life (2013)
Gearbox bearing service life
Bernd Seidenthal, Rick Trichka - Understanding the importance of bearing clearance (2018)
Tribological bearing testing
Can WD40 be used as a bearing lubricant?
Using oil mist to lubricate process pumps at high temperatures
A 'solid' concept for bearing lubrication
Grease lubricated rolling element bearings (links)
When a properly packed bearing starts up, there will be an initial rise in the temperature while the grease disperses throughout the bearing and the housing before falling off to a steady operating temperature. If the temperature does not drop, then there is too much grease in the bearing or there is a problem with the bearing fit.